Diagnostic Method for Diagnosing Depression and Monitoring Therapy Effectiveness

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to new biomarkers and new sets of biomarkers for diagnosing a mood disorder, preferably depression or monitoring the effectiveness of therapy for said mood disorder.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to the field of diagnostics, more specificallydiagnosis of affective disorders, more specifically diagnosis ofdepression, by assaying for a set of psychiatric disease-markers.Further, the invention relates to a method for monitoring the effect ofantidepressant therapy, being medication, psychotherapy or a combinationof both.

BACKGROUND

Disorders of the mood are often called affective disorders, since affectis the external display of mood or emotion which is, however, feltinternally. Mood disorders are defined as mixtures of symptoms packagedinto syndromes. These syndromes are consensus statements from committeeswriting the nosologies of psychiatric disorders for the Diagnostic andStatistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of the American PsychiatricAssociation (Table 1).

Diagnosis both in clinical practice and in clinical research studies isbased on these sets of specific signs and symptoms. These criteria havehelped distinguish various mood disorders that may have different causesand that certainly require different clinical management. The mostcommon and readily recognised mood disorder is major depression as asingle episode or recurrent episodes. Dysthymia is a less severe butoften longer-lasting form of depression, i.e. over two years in durationand often unremitting. Another type of mood disorder is bipolar disease,which is characterised by the occurrence of manic episodes besidesdepression.

There are no pathognomonic markers of depression, although this is anarea of active research (Duffy A., 2000, Can. J. Psychiatr.,45:340-348).

TABLE 1 Diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder* A. Thepatient has depressed mood (e.g., sad or empty feeling) or loss ofinterest or pleasure most of the time for 2 or more weeks plus 4 or moreof the following symptoms Sleep Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every dayInterest Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in nearly allactivities most of the time Guilt Excessive or inappropriate feelings ofguilt or worthlessness most of the time Energy Loss of energy or fatiguemost of the time Concentration Diminished ability to think orconcentrate; indecisiveness most of the time Appetite Increase ordecrease in appetite Psychomotor Observed psychomotoragitation/retardation Suicide Recurrent thoughts of death/suicidalideation B. The symptoms do not meet criteria for a mixed episode (majordepressive episode and manic episode) C. The symptoms cause clinicallysignificant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or otherimportant areas of functioning D. The symptoms are not due to the directphysiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, amedication) or a general medical condition E. The symptoms are notbetter accounted for by bereavement *Adapted from the Diagnostic andStatistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th editon.’

Depressive disorders are associated with poor work productivity, asindicated by a 3-fold increase in the number of sick days in the monthpreceding the illness for workers with a depressive illness comparedwith coworkers who did not have such an illness (Parikh, S. V. et al.,1996, J. Affect. Disord. 38:57-65; Kessler, R. C. et al., 1999, HealthAff. 18:163-171).

Depressive illnesses also affect family members and caregivers (Denihan,A. et al., 1998, Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatr. 13:691-694), and there isincreasing evidence that children of women with depression haveincreased rates of problems in school and with behaviour, and have lowerlevels of social competence and self-esteem than their classmates withmothers who do not have depression (Goodman, S. H. and Gotlib, I. H.,1999, Psychol. Rev. 106:458-490). Depression is the leading cause ofdisability and premature death among people aged 18 to 44 years, and itis expected to be the second leading cause of disability for people ofall ages by 2020 (Murray, C. J. and Lopez, A. D., 1997, The Lancet349:1498-1504; Gredon, J. F., 2001, J. Clin. Psychiatr. 62:26-31).

Depressive illnesses have also been shown to be associated withincreased rates of death and disability from cardiovascular disease(e.g. Pratt, L. A. et al., 1996, Circulation 94:3123-3129, Bush, D. E.et al., 2001, Am. J. Cardiol. 88:337-341). Among 1551 study subjectswithout a history of heart disease who were followed for 13 years, theodds ratio for acute myocardial infarction among the subjects who had amajor depressive episode was 4.5 times higher than among those who didnot have a depressive episode. Among consecutive patients admitted tohospital with an acute myocardial infarction who had their mood measuredwith a standard depression rating scale, even those with minimalsymptoms of depression had evidence of higher subsequent risk of deathfollowing their infarction and over the next 4 months. This risk wasindependent of other major risk factors, including age, ventricularejection fraction and the presence of diabetes mellitus.

Surprisingly, for such a common disease there is little agreement on theassociation between age and onset. This is due to the fact that researchis hampered by the absence of an unambiguous and universally agreed onset of diagnostic criteria and the fact that many of the studies haveincluded patients already in the medical care system. It is well knownthat many people who meet the diagnostic criteria for depression do notseek treatment.

Despite its high prevalence, only one-third of all patients withdepression receive adequate treatment (Judd, L. L. et al., 1996, Am. J.Psychiatry 153:1411-1417). The following are 4 common clinical errorsthat lead to diagnostic or treatment failures associated with depressivedisorders:

Insufficient questioning. Diagnostic failures occur when the patient isnot asked questions that may elicit the symptoms of a mood disorderdespite what should be a high index of suspicion based on itsprevalence. The mnemonic “SIGECAPS” (sleep, interest, guilt, energy,concentration, appetite, psychomotor, suicide) (Table 1) may be a usefulclinical adjunct (i.e., 4 or more SIGECAPS for major depression, 2 or 3SIGECAPS for dysthymia).

Failure to consult a family member. Owing to the cognitive distortionsassociated with the disease, it is not unusual for patients to minimizeor exaggerate their symptoms. Thus, in patients who are relatively newto one's practice, it is risky at best to make (or exclude) a diagnosisof depression without collateral information from a relative, such as aspouse or parent.

Acceptance of a diagnosis of a mood disorder despite lack of diagnosticcriteria (e.g., starting treatment for depression when only a “depressedmood” is present without the concomitant mental and physical symptoms[i.e., SIGECAPS]).

Exclusion of a diagnosis or failure to start treatment for depressiondespite the associated symptom complex (e.g., “Of course you'redepressed. Who wouldn't be depressed if these events were occurring intheir life?” In other words, “explaining” the diagnosis rather thanconsidering treatment options).

These clinical errors, coupled with the stigma associated withpsychiatric conditions (Sirey, J. A. et al., 2001, Psychiatr. Serv.52:1615-1620), result in the underdiagnosis of major mood disorders.

Another major hypothesis in the field of psychotherapy at present, isthat recognition and treatment of both unipolar and bipolar depressions,causing all symptoms to remit for long periods of time, might preventprogression of the disease to more difficult states, emphasising thatearly recognition of mood disorder subtype is of great importance.

Taken all these data together, it is clear that there exists a majorneed for a reliable diagnosis of depression, or, alternatively, an assaythat can confirm a diagnosis on basis of the SIGECAPS criteria.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

As is discussed above many factors appear to play a role or contributeto the development of mood disorders, especially depression and moreparticularly major depression disorder (MDD). The invention now residesin the choice of a panel of biomarkers for the diagnosis and monitoringof depression, where this panel comprises biomarkers that arecomplementary as regards to the (putative) role they are playing in theontogenesis of depression, thereby reflecting the above mentioneddifferent hypotheses of depression.

In the panel of the invention markers reflecting the following groupsmay be included:

markers reflecting the mineral homeostasis hypothesis: PTH, AVP and itsreceptors (V1a, V1b), cAMP, digoxin, TRPM7, TRPM6, RACK-1, 17 betaestrathol, REA, telomerase, substance P and its receptor NK1, EGF andits receptors ERBB1-4, aldosteron and its receptor (MRC) and allsubstances which are known to influence the excretion of aldosteron likeangiotensin I and II and their receptors (AT1, AT2), ACTH and itsreceptor (MC2), potassium and rennin.

markers reflecting endothelin dysfunction and oxidative stress chosenfrom: oxLDL and its receptor LOX-1, F2-isoprostane, nitrotyrosine,endothelin-1 and its receptors (Eta,ETb), elastin/desmosine.

markers reflecting tight junction & leaky gut hypothesis: zonulinproteins and zonula occludens toxin_(zot); LIGHT and_lymphotoxin βreceptor (LTβR)

markers reflecting pro-inflammatory hypothesis chosen from: allphospholipase A2 enzymes, PAF/PLAF; and all downstream components ofarachidonic acid as well as dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid pathway like butnot limited to PGA2, PGE2 an its receptors, Tromboxane B2 and itsreceptor TP, Prostacyclin, PGF2 and PGD2; downstream 5-HPETE and otherHPETEs derivatives like but not limited to 5-HETE, LTB4 and itsreceptors (BLT1, BLT2 ect), LTC4, LTD4 LTE4; cysteinyl leukotrienereceptor type 1, lipoxin (LXA4, LXB4), lipoxin A₄ receptor, PGE1, PGA1,PGH₁₋₁₅OH triene.

markers reflecting the immune-inflammation hypothesis chosen from:lipocalin-2, TNF alpha, TNF beta, TNF alpha receptor type 1+2, HVEM,calprotectin, il-6 and its receptor, il-1 and its receptor,myeloperoxidase, galectin-8 and neopterin.

markers reflecting the neurogenesis hypothesis chosen from BDNF and itsreceptors TrkB and LNGFR, midkine and its receptor RPTPξ, bFGF and itsreceptor HVEM and PEDF.

markers reflecting a (change in) energy state: leptin and its receptor(LEP-R), adiponectin and its receptors (ADIPOR1, ADIPOR2 and CDH13)

other markers chosen from: vitamin D and its receptor (VDR), cortisoland its receptor (GCR), annexin-1, pregnenolone and its receptor (GCR),Activin/inhibin and their receptors, GABA, VILIP-1, Neuropeptide Y,MMP-1, BCL-2, Calreticulin, cGMP and compounds from the NO-cGMP pathwayincluding all agents which are known to influence the excretion of cGMPlike atrial natriuretic peptide, brain natriuretic peptide and c-typenatriuretic peptide; vasoactive intestinal peptide and calcitoningene-related peptide, nitric oxide synthase (endothelial NOS, eNOS,neuronal NOS, nNOS) and l-arginine;

According to the invention a set of markers that can be used in an assayto diagnose an affective disorder, preferably MDD, bipolar depression oranxiety may be a set of two markers chosen from the above groups, whichset may be supplemented by any marker from the above-mentioned groups.For testing in urine, preferably the set of two markers is chosen from agroup of 32 markers, comprising activin, cAMP, aldosteron, digoxin,lipocalin, neopterin, LTB4, TNF alpha receptor 2, HVEM, PGE2,thromboxane B2, LOX-1, nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane, midkine, IGF,endothelin-1, c-GMP, GABA, vitamin D, cortisol, pregnenolone, substanceP, EGF, calprotectin, leptin, myeloperoxidase, neuropeptide Y, CCK,sVEGFR1, AVP and adiponectin. For testing in serum, preferably, the setof two markers is chosen from a group of 38 markers comprising Activin,cAMP, aldosteron, lipocalin, TNF alpha receptor 2, HVEM, galectin-8,PGE2, thromboxane B2, LOX-1, nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane, BDNF, PEDF,midkine, endothelin-1, c-GMP, GABA, vitamin D, pregnenolone, substanceP, EGF, zonulin, calprotectin, VILIP, leptin, AVP (vasopressine),neuropeptide Y, MMP-1, bFGF, digoxin, BCL-2, calreticulin,myeloperoxidase, LTB4, PLAF, sVEGFR1 and adiponectin

Accordingly, the invention comprises a method for the diagnosis of amood disorder comprising:

taking a body fluid sample of a subject;

measuring the content of one of more of the above-mentioned biomarkersin said sample; and

compare the concentration that is measured with the concentration of theone or more biomarkers in a control subject; and

diagnose for the mood disorder if the concentration is deviant from theconcentration in control healthy subjects.

Preferably the mood disorder is chosen from depression, schizophrenia,psychosis and anxiety, more preferably the mood disorder is depression,chosen from dysthymia, endogenous depression, reactive depression, minordepression, major depression, psychotic depression, neurotic depression,unipolar depression and bipolar depression, most preferably majordepression.

Further, the invention comprises a method to determine the influence ofantidepressant therapy, being medication, psychotherapy, or acombination of both, in a subject comprising:

taking a body fluid sample of a subject and measuring the content of oneor more biomarkers as disclosed herein;

repeating step a) with regular intervals during said treatment; and

registering any difference in the concentration of the one or moremeasured biomarkers in the body fluid.

Also the invention comprises a method to monitor the progress of a mooddisorder in a subject comprising performing a method according to theinvention. Further, the invention also relates to the use of a panel ofbiomarkers in the diagnosis and monitoring of progression of a mooddisorder, especially depression, and more particularly MDD.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: Omega-6 & Omega-3 pathway

FIG. 2: Metabolites of cell-membrane phospholipids

FIG. 3: GLA, DGLA and AA pathway

FIG. 4. List of markers and proposed marker sets that can be used onserum samples.

FIG. 5. List of markers and proposed marker sets that can be used onurine samples.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is considered to be a heterogeneous andmultifactorial disease. This suggests that the pathology underlying MDDcan be rather divergent, which is in line with the considerable numberof different MDD hypotheses that have been put forward. A few of thesehypotheses are as follows.

Monoamine Hypothesis

Dysfunctions of monoaminergic systems (serotonin, norepinephrine anddopamine) may have a causal relation with MDD (Ruhe et al., 2007; Nuttet al., 2008). According to the monoamine theory, MDD is caused by animpaired monoaminergic neurotransmission, resulting in decreasedextracellular norepinephrine (NE) and/or serotonin (5-HT) levels(Schildkraut, 1965; Doris et al., 1999). Diminished concentrations ofserotonin and its metabolites have been demonstrated in cerebrospinalfluid (Åsberg et al., 1984) and in post mortem brain tissue of depressedpatients (Cheethman et al., 1989).

There are also reports of altered platelet 5-HT transporter function(Nemeroff et al., 1994) and of altered 5-HT₂ receptor function in boththe brain (Arango et al., 1992) and platelets (Bakish et al., 1997).Studies investigating NE and 5-HT metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid,blood or urine of patients with MDD and post-mortem studies seem tosupport the monoamine hypothesis of MDD (Belmaker and Agam, 2008; Pryorand Sulser, 1991). Associations of MDD with functional polymorphisms inthe gene that codes for the enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), whichdegrades monoamines in the brain (Wild and Benzel, 1994 Wild and Benzel,1994) have also been reported (Chen and Ridd, 1999; Fan et al., 2010).In the past two decades, however, investigations have revealed severallimitations of the monoamine hypothesis (Hirschfeld et al, 2000), andthus far research has failed to find convincing evidence for a primarydysfunction of one specific monoamine system in patients with MDD(Delgado et al, 2000). Arguably, monoamine systems are not dysfunctionalper se but they may be challenged under certain conditions that requirean increased availability of the neurotransmitter, e.g. duringinflammation and chronic stress.

Mineral Homeostasis Hypothesis

Minerals are released into the blood when needed, the ability tomaintain internal equilibrium of bone matrix density on the one hand andblood calcium and phosphate ion levels on the other hand by adjustingthe complex negative feedback processes regulating mineral absorptionfrom the digestive tract, mineral deposition/dissolution in the skeletalsystem, and mineral excretion by the kidneys; the endocrine control ofmineral homeostasis is achieved by the antagonistic interplay ofparathyroid hormone (PTH) from the parathyroid glands which tends toincrease blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts and(thyro)calcitonin from the thyroid gland which tends to decrease bloodcalcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts. An association of depressionstatus and severity with decreased serum 25(OH)D levels and increasedserum PTH levels has been shown (Hoogendijk, 2008). Serum PTH levels areclosely associated with urinary cAMP concentrations (Lukert, 1976).

Acute stress leads to an increase of catecholamines and cortisol whichcauses an increased exchange of magnesium ions for calcium ions at theintracellular level.

Studies in cultured cells have shown that intracellular calcium is canbe controlled by receptors for many neurotransmitters and otherneuro-active substances, such as glutamate, ATP, epinephrine,norepinephrine, GABA, acetyl choline, histamine, substance P,bradykinin, endothelin, serotonin, oxytocin, arginine-vasopressin,neuropeptide-Y, complement fragments, platelet activating factor,prostanoids, angiotensin II, thrombin and possibly also by endogenousligands for opioid and benzodiazepine receptors (Verkhratsky et al.,1998). In the majority of eukaryotic cells, hormones or agents thatincrease cellular cAMP elicit a significant extrusion of Mg²⁺ into theextracellular space or circulation (vorman and gunther, 1987; Romani andscarpa, 1990a; Romani and scarpa, 1990b). In all cellular models, Mg²⁺extrusion is a fast process that reaches the maximum within 8 minutesfrom the application of the stimulus. Surprisingly we demonstrated thatmood disorder are correlated with increased concentrations of cAMP inblood and urine.

Magnesium ions enter and exit the cell via channels or channel likemechanisms.

TRPM7 (Nadler et al., 2001) and TRPM6 (Schlingmann et al., 2002) werethe first channels identified as being able to transport Mg²⁺ intomammalian cells.

TRPM7 plays a major functional role in neuronal function and survivalunder hypoxia or ischemic reperfusion conditions has increased. Owing toits ability to transport either Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺, TRPM7 exhibits anambivalent role based upon the permeating cation. Following activationby reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and prolonged oxygen and glucosedeprivation, TRPM7 favours Ca²⁺ fluxes that result in toxic event forneurons (Aarts et al. 2003). In contrast, Mg²⁺ permeation of the channelenhances anti-apoptotic and cell survival mechanisms, preventing theanoxic death of neurons (Clark et al. 2006). The essential role of TRPM7in detecting extracellular divalent Cations is supported by a recentstudy by Wei et al., (2007), which indicates that activation of thechannel by low extracellular divalent cations is lethal to the cell. Atthe same time, Jiang et al., (2008) have reported that occlusion of themiddle cerebral artery for 1 hour enhances TRPM7 expression inipsilateral hippocampus, with deleterious consequences for the neurons.The increased expression of TRPM7 and its consequences are largelycounteracted by pre-treatment with nerve growth factor via activation ofTrkA pathway (Jiang et al., 2008). More recently, application of5-lipoxygenase inhibitors can block TRPM7 current without affectingprotein expression and cell membrane concentration, de facto preventingcell death (Chen et al., 2010).

TRPM6

The unique localization of TRPM6 channels in the colon and the renaldistal convolute tubule, two epithelia otherwise highly impermeable tosalt reabsorption, highlights the specific role of this channel incontrolling intestinal Mg²⁻ absorption and renal Mg2+ resorption, andconsequently contributing to whole-body Mg2+ homeostasis. It confines anMg²⁺-permeable channel, the activity of which is strongly

regulated by the intracellular Mg²⁺ concentration ([Mg²⁺]_(i)).Expression of TRPM6 is regulated by dietary Mg²⁺, whereas TRPM7 isunaffected, supporting the idea of an important role of TRPM6 intransepithelial Mg²⁺ transport. Estrogens (17B-estradiol) are known toupregulate TRPM6 mRNA in both colon and kidney.

Estrogen also acts via a rapid pathway on Mg²⁺ homeostasis in additionto its transcriptional effect (Cao et al., 2009) which might explain thehigher incidence of mood disorders in females. Furthermore the activityof TRPM6 channels is modulated by cellular signaling molecules likeRACK-1 (Cao et al., 2008), repressor of estrogen receptor activity (REA)and EGF which is known to be an autocrine/paracrine magnesiotropichormone (Groenestege et al. 2007).

Ca²⁻/Mg²⁺ balance is regulated by many hormones and stimuli, but thismechanism will not likely play a major role under acute stressconditions wherein cellular mechanisms are still capable to maintainproper electrolyte balance and thus Mg-ATP integrity. During chronicstress, however, intracellular magnesium might become critically low,thus compromising the capability to stabilize ATP, while the temporaldecrease of calcium levels and increase of magnesium in the circulationwill stimulate the parathyroid gland, through activation of calciumsensitive receptors, to increase the production of PTH. The increasedlevels of PTH stimulate both the back-resorption of calcium ions by thekidneys but also the resorption by osteoclasts in bone tissue of calciumand phosphate ions into the circulation. The lack of intracellular ATP(energy) in combination with calcium overload might threaten proper cellfunction, both centrally and peripherally. The latter is supported bythe strong association of MDD with osteoporosis. This further fuels theinflow of calcium ions into cells which in combination with HCO₃ ⁻ ions(likely through a Cl⁻/HCO₃ ⁻ exchange mechanism at the cellular level)will ultimately lead to calcification and thus apoptosis of bothperipheral and CNS cells.

As witnessed in MMD by the mood stabilizing efficacy of lithium ions,changes of electrolyte balance (through IP3 in case of Li⁺) has majoreffects on brain function. Studies in patients with MDD have shownincreased Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ ratios in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (Levine et al.,1999). Moreover, postmortem studies of depressed patients have shown areduced Mg²⁺ concentration in brain tissue (Nowak et al., 2010).Previously it was shown that the baseline level of cAMP in plasma andcerebrospinal fluid (Belmaker et al 1980; Post et al 1982; Maj et al1984), was not altered in various mood states.

Phosphor nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) has demonstrateda reduced Mg²⁺ concentration in depressed patients, refractory to SSRItreatment (Iosifescu et al., 2005). In hippocampal synaptosomes,activation of protein kinase C (PKC) abolishes the blockade of NMDAdependent ion channels by Mg²⁺ without changing the membrane potential(Pittaluga et al., 2000). Accordingly, intracellular administration of aPKC agonist potentiated NMDA receptor function in cultured hippocampalneurons (Xiong et al., 1998). This could lead to a feed-forward cycle;an NMDA dependent Ca²⁺ current may increase PKC activity leading tofurther release of the Mg²⁺ block of the NMDA dependent ion current.Mg²⁺ also has a direct influence on PKC function. The catalytic subunitof PKC requires Mg²⁺ as a cofactor (Hannun and Bell, 1990), anddeactivation of PKC by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depends on thepresence of Mg²⁺ (Wolf et al., 1985). Besides influencing glutamateneurotransmission through NMDA receptors, Mg²⁺ depletion also affectshippocampal excitability via non-NMDA receptor mediated Ca²⁻ currents,which can be suppressed by the Ca²⁺ channel blocker verapamil (Pohl etal., 1992; Walden et al., 1992). Under normal conditions NMDA receptorsadmit only the amount of Ca²⁻ necessary for neuronal function, but withimproper function caused by insufficient Mg²⁺, for instance, the influxof Ca²⁺ will increase beyond manageable levels leading to the generationof toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and toxic amounts of nitric oxide(NO) radicals (Blaylock, 1999; Mark, 2001; Carafoli, 2005). Mgdeficiency is known to correlate with an increase of substance P andosteoporosis (Rude R K, 2009). We demonstrated that mood disorders arecorrelated with increased concentrations of substance P in blood andsurprisingly as well as in urine. Estrogens, (REA), EGF and RACK-1 canbe used as biomarkers for mood disorders.

Further, magnesium deficiency is known to correlate with ageing, whichmeans that telomerase may act as a marker for molecule for such amagnesium deficiency.

Other minerals are regulated in analogous fashion by endocrine negativefeedback systems, e.g., sodium and potassium ion levels are regulated bythe adrenocortical steroid hormone aldosterone.

Aldosterone, a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, is theprinciple mineralocorticoid controlling sodium and potassium balance(Rogerson, 2000; Agarwal, 1999). The primary role of aldosterone is topromote unidirectional salt reabsorption across a variety of epithelialtissues, the salivary gland, intestine, sweat glands, and the kidney.Aldosterone is synthesized from cholesterol in the zona glomerulos ofthe adrenal cortex. Secretion of aldosterone is complicated, beingaffected by both hormones and electrolytes. However, therenin-angiotensin system (RAS) is the primary regulator of aldosteronesecretion (Lumbers, 1999) Angiotensin II and potassium stimulatesecretion of aldosterone by increasing the rate of synthesis of thehormone. The angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) has been repeatedlydiscussed as susceptibility factor for major depression (MD) and thebi-directional relation between MD and cardiovascular disorders (Zill,2012). Minor regulators include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) fromthe pituitary, atrial natriuretic peptide from the heart, and localadrenal secretion of dopamine. We demonstrated that mood disorders arecorrelated with increased concentrations of aldosteron and digoxin inblood as well as urine.

Oxidative Stress & Endothelin Dysfunction Hypothesis

Major depression has been shown to be accompanied by increased oxidativestress and lipid peroxidation. Plasma peroxides and serum oxidized LDL(oxLDL) antibodies are known to be correlated to major depression.(Maes, 2010). Atherosclerosis and depression are also known to beassociated (Jones, 2003; Wiiteman, 2004; Hamer, 2010).

The endothelial injury, activation, and dysfunction caused by oxidizedLDL (oxLDL) in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis are exerted vialectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1)activation. LOX-1, initially identified as the major receptor for oxLDLin endothelial cells, can also be expressed in macrophages and smoothmuscle cells (SMCs). The stage for atherosclerosis is set onceendothelial dysfunction occurs. LOX-1 may play a role in initiating andpotentiating this crucial first step.

Under conditions of hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes,disease states that promote vascular injury, LOX-1 is highly expressedin blood vessels.

Induction of LOX-1 expression is mediated by angiotensin II andendothelin-1, both antagonists of NO. With elevated levels of LOX-1 onthe endothelium, increased amounts of oxLDL can be endocytosed, anactivity that further enhances LOX-1 expression. OxLDL through LOX-1also increases the expression of angiotensin converting enzyme andreduces the intracellular concentration of NO. In addition to being themain receptor for oxLDL, LOX-1 has the ability to bind damaged orapoptotic cells, activated platelets, advanced glycation end products,and pathogenic organisms. Once bound, these ligands can be endocytosedor phagocytosed into the cell. Under physiological conditions, LOX-1 mayplay a role in host defense or serve to scavenge cellular debris.However, in pathological states, LOX-1 may be involved in bindingproatherogenic materials, such as oxLDL, that activate the endothelium.With its ability to bind products that induce inflammation andendothelial activation, it is not surprising that elevated LOX-1expression is observed in both initial and advanced atheroscleroticlesions. The stage for atherosclerosis is set once endothelialdysfunction occurs. Under conditions of hypercholesterolemia,hypertension, and diabetes which are all known to be associated withmood disorders, disease states that promote vascular injury, LOX-1 ishighly expressed in blood vessels. Induction of LOX-1 expression ismediated by angiotensin II and endothelin-1, both antagonists of NO.With elevated levels of LOX-1 on the endothelium, increased amounts ofoxLDL can be endocytosed, an activity that further enhances LOX-1expression. OxLDL through LOX-1 also increases the expression ofangiotensin converting enzyme and reduces the intracellularconcentration of NO. Thus, LOX-1 activity amplifies the extent ofendothelial dysfunction. However, oxLDL uptake by LOX-1 also mediatesendothelial cell apoptosis, potentially via nuclear factor (NF)_Bactivation. This may result in direct vascular denudation and injurythat may trigger or enhance an existing inflammatory reaction (Szmitko,2003).

We demonstrated that mood disorders are correlated with increasedconcentrations of endothelin-1, F2-isoprostane, LOX-1 and nitro-tyrosineconcentrations in blood as well as urine.

Tight Junction Hypothesis

Intestinal mucosal dysfunction characterized by an increasedtranslocation of gram-negative bacteria (leaky gut) has suggested toplay a role in the inflammatory pathophysiology of depression. It issuggested that the increased LPS translocation may mount an immuneresponse and thus inflammatory response system activation in somepatients with MDD and may induce specific “sickness behaviour” symptoms(Maes, 2008; Painsipp, 2011). T cell-derived LIGHT is known to activateepithelial LTβR to disrupt barrier function (Brad T. et al. 2007).Furthermore it was found that individuals with recent-onset psychosisand with multi-episode schizophrenia who have increased antibodies togliadin may share some immunologic features of celiac disease, but theirimmune response to gliadin differs from that of celiac disease(Dickerson, 2010). Gliadin binds to CXCR3 and leads to MyD88-dependentzonulin release and increased intestinal permeability (Lammers, 2008).We demonstrated for the first time that the zonulin serum concentrationis associated with mood disorders.

Zonulin

Intercellular tight junctions are dynamic structures involved invectorial transport of water and electrolytes across the cell membranesof the intestinal epithelium and brain blood barrier. Zonula occludenstoxin derived from Vibrio cholerae interacts with a specific intestinalepithelial surface receptor, with subsequent activation of a complexintracellular cascade of events that regulate tight junctionpermeability. Zonulin likely plays a pivotal role in tight junctionregulation during developmental, physiological, and pathologicalprocesses, including tissue morphogenesis, movement of fluid,macromolecules and leukocytes between the intestinal lumen and theinterstitium, and inflammatory/autoimmune disorders (Fasano, 2001; Wang,2000).

Pro-Inflammatory Hypothesis

In the last 150 years, rapid expansion in Western populations has beenassociated with a change in diet, with omega-3 polyunsaturated fattyacids from fish, wild game, and plants being replaced by saturated fatsfrom domestic animals and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids fromcommon vegetable oils (corn, safflower, and soybean) and other sources.These changes have resulted in a large increase in the ratio of omega-6to omega-3 fatty acids in the general diet from 1:1 to more than 10:1(4, 5). This has resulted in a high proportion of the common omega-6fatty acid arachidonic acid, rather than EPA, in the cell membranes ofmost tissues. As depicted in FIG. 1 an increase in arachidonic acid alsoaffects the production of EPA and DHA, owing to competition formetabolizing enzymes. The AA/EPA ratio can be used as a biomarker formood disorders.

Antidepressant Efficacy of Omega-3 Fatty Acids (EPA) has been welldocumented for both major depression and bipolar depression (Pao-YenLin, 2007). The two omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, compete witharachidonic acid (AA) for incorporation into membrane phospholipids.Phospholipases A2 are enzymes that catalytically hydrolyzes the bondreleasing arachidonic acid and lysophospholipids. Phospholipases A2include several protein families with common enzymatic activity. Twomost notable families are CA2+ dependent secreted and cytosolicphospholipases A2.

Other families include Ca²⁺ independent PLA2 (iPLA2) andlipoprotein-associated PLA2s (lp-PLA2), also known as plateletactivating factor acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH). Increased PLA2 activity andPLA2-generated mediators are known to play a central role in acuteinflammatory responses in the brain but also in oxidative stressassociated with neurological disorders (Faraooqui, 2006). PhospholipaseA2 and COX-2 genes also increase the risk of IFN-alpha induceddepression by regulating polyunsaturated fatty acid level (Su K P, HuangS Y, 2010). EPA is important in balancing the immune function andphysical health by reducing phospholipase A2, Platelet acitivatingfactor (PAF), arachidonic acid (AA level on cell membrane) prostaglandinE2 (PGE2) and LTB4 synthesis. (Joel M. Kremer, 1996). We alsodemonstrated the correlation of PLA2 and mood disorders.

The cellular calcium overload explained in the section “mineralhomeostasis” activates the PLA2 enzymes to release the arachidonic acid(AA) from the cell membranes. Hence increased amounts of AA areconverted via cyclooxygenase and 5-lopoxygenase into eicosanoidmetabolites. The most important ones are depicted in FIG. 2.

This results in an increase of amongst others prostaglandins,thromboxanes and leukotrienes. These proinflammatory eicosanoids haveall been linked to depression (Linnoila et al., 1983; Calabrese et al.,1986; Ohishi et al., 1998; Nishino et al., 1989; Song et al., 1998). Wealso demonstrated that mood disorders are correlated with increasedPGE2, LTB4, and thromboxane B2 concentrations in blood as well as urine.

EPA competes with arachidonic acid for the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme systemas is indicated in FIG. 1, inhibiting the production of proinflammatoryeicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid (e.g. prostaglandins,leukotrienes and thromboxanes) which have been linked to depression.

DHA and EPA also inhibit the release of proinflammatory cytokines, suchas interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-2, interleukin-6, interferon-gamma,and tumor necrosis factor alpha (Guixiang, 2007), which depend oneicosanoid release, and are also associated with depression. Further,omega-3 fatty acids affect brain-derived neurotrophic factor, whichencourages synaptic plasticity, provides neuroprotection, enhancesneurotransmission, and has antidepressant effects (Ikemoto, 2000)

AA, DGLA and all cyclooxygenase & 5-lipoxygenase based metabolitesthereof can be used as biomarkers for anti-inflammatory &pro-inflammatory disease states. The corresponding pathway is depictedin FIG. 3.

DGLA and it's metabolites being:

Series-1 thromboxanes (thromboxanes with 1 double-bond), via the COX-1and COX-2 pathways.

Series-1 prostanoids, via the COX-1 and COX-2 pathways. (Yang-li, 1998)

15-hydroxyl derivative that blocks the transformation of arachidonicacid to leukotrienes (Belch, 2006)

The effects of DGLA and its metabolites are anti-inflammatory. This isin marked contrast with the analogous metabolites of arachidonic acid(AA), which are the series-2 thromboxanes and prostanoids and theseries-4 leukotrienes. In addition to yielding anti-inflammatoryeicosanoids, DGLA competes with AA for COX and lipoxygenase, inhibitingthe production of AA's eicosanoids.

An other metabolite is lipoxin. Lipoxins are a series ofanti-inflammatory mediators. Lipoxins are short lived endogenouslyproduced nonclassic eicosanoids whose appearance in inflammation signalsthe resolution of inflammation.

They are abbreviated as LX, an acronym for lipoxygenase (LO) interactionproducts. At present two lipoxins have been identified; lipoxin A₄(LXA₄) and lipoxin B₄ (LXB₄). Lipoxins, as well as certain peptides, arehigh affinity ligands for the lipoxin A₄ receptor (LXA4R), which wasfirst identified based on sequence homology as the formyl peptidereceptor like receptor (FPRL1). Lipoxin signaling through the LXA4Rinhibits chemotaxis, transmigration, superoxide generation and NF-κBactivation. Similarly to the leukotrienes, LXA₄ will form thecysteinyl-lipoxins LXC₄, LXD₄ and LXE₄. At subnanomolar concentrations,LXA₄ and LXB₄ inhibit leukotriene-stimulated interactions of humanneutrophils and endothelial cells.

Immune-Inflammation Hypothesis

Over the last two decades, new developments in psychiatric research haveled to the hypothesis that inflammatory processes and neural-immuneinteractions are involved in the pathogenesis of major depression andthat these might underlie some of the frequently observed serotonergicand adrenocortical correlates of MDD. This monocyte-T-lymphocyte orcytokine hypothesis of depression (Maes 1993, 1995a, 1995b, 1999;Schiepers et al., 2005) implies that pro-inflammatory cytokines, such asinterleukin (IL)-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interferon(IFN)-γ, which act as neuromodulators, represent key factors in the(central) mediation of the behavioral, neuroendocrine and neurochemicalfeatures of depressive disorders (Schiepers et al., 2005).

The central action of cytokines may also account for the HPA-axishyperactivity frequently observed in depressive disorders, becausepro-inflammatory cytokines may cause HPA-axis hyperactivity bydisturbing the negative feedback inhibition of circulatingcorticosteroids on the HPA axis (van West and Maes, 1999; Leonard, 2001;Schiepers et al., 2005; Maes et al., 2008; Maes, 2010). Another linkmight be via TNF-α and cortisol, both influencing the phosphorylation oftranscription factor cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) inT-lymphocytes (Koch et al., 2009). Cytokines also influencemonoaminergic neurotransmission, i.e. serotonin, norepinephrine anddopamine (Linthorst et al., 1995, Merali et al., 1997, Pauli et al.,1998 and Song et al., 1999, 2000; Lacosta et al., 2000).

They might also reduce tryptophan (TRP) availability through activationof the TRP-metabolizing enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Thus,increased stimulation of IDO by cytokines might lead to depletion ofserum TRP, which results in a significant reduction of 5-HT synthesis(Heyes et al., 1992; Stone and Darlington, 20021 Full Text via Cross RefView Record in Scopus Cited By in Scopus (177) Stone and Darlington,2002), thus compromising 5-HT neurotransmission. Activation of IDO bycytokines might also lead to increased production of neurotoxickynurenines and isoquinolines. Characteristics of immune activation inMDD include increased serum levels of markers for immune cell activation(e.g. g. neopterin, PGE2 and soluble IL-2 receptors), higher serumconcentrations of C-Reactive Protein (CRP) as well as increased releaseof pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-2 and IL-6 by activatedmacrophages and IFN-γ by activated T cells (Maes et al., 1995a,b; Maes,1999; Irwin, 1999; Nunes et al., 2002).

In line with the immune-inflammation hypothesis of depression, theincrease in plasma concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1and IL-6 observed in patients suffering from depression has beenreported to correlate with the severity of MDD and with measures of HPAaxis hyperactivity (Maes, 1995, 1999).

Neurogenesis and Neuroplasticity Hypothesis

Over the past decade, an increasing body of evidence has implicatedneurotrophic factors in the pathogenesis of depression (Tanis et al.,2007)). FIG. 1 outlines some of the mechanisms underlying thishypothesis (Duman, R. S. et al., 1997, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54:597-608;Manji, H. K. et al., 2000, Mol. Psychiatry 5:578-593).

Stress, an important precipitant of depression, has been repeatedlyshown to reduce neurogenesis and the expression of neurotrophic factorgenes in the brain (Duman, 2004; Nibuya et al., 1995). Conversely, manyantidepressant treatments stimulate neurogenesis and neurotrophic factorgene expression (Nibuya et al., 1995; Malberg et al., 2000). We are nowaware that “long-term” (i.e., 30 days) antidepressant treatment resultsin sustained activation of cyclic adenosine 3-5-monophosphate (cAMP) inspecific brain regions. Protein kinase A, which is stimulated by cAMP,phosphorylates the cAMP regulatory element binding protein (CREB). Thisprotein then regulates and activates specific target genes, includingthe gene that codes for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), aneuroprotective factor that stimulates hippocampal nerve growth.

Furthermore, depressed patients show increased cellular atrophy inlimbic and cortical areas of the brain, consistent with decreasedneurotrophic activity (Duman and Monteggia, 2006). MRI scans of patientswith depression have revealed a number of abnormalities in brainstructures compared with healthy controls. Despite some inconsistencies,meta-analyses have shown clear evidence for smaller hippocampal volumesand an increased number of hyper-intensive lesions (Videbech et al,1997, 2004). Furthermore, a series of brain-imaging studies consistentlyshowed reduced neuronal activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortexthat co-varied with the severity of the depression (i.e., the moresevere the depression, the larger the prefrontal deficits) (Drevets, W.C., 1998, Ann. Rev. Med. 49:341-361). Thus, an updated hypothesis on thedevelopment of a depressive disorder might posit that stress-inducedvulnerability in genetically susceptible people may induce a cascade ofintracellular neuronal mechanisms that increase or decrease specificneurotrophic factors necessary for the survival and function of specificbrain neurons. Besides, antidepressants, electroconvulsive therapy(Vaidya V. A. et al., 1999, Neuroscience 89:157-166) anddepression-focused psychotherapy (Thase, M. E., 2001, Arch. Gen.Psychiatry 58:651-652) positively influence neuronal growth and regionalbrain metabolism.

A small fraction of neuronal stem cells of neuronal stem cells in thesubventricular zone is capable of division and lifelong renewal and moveto the hippocampus which is particularly involved in memoryconsolidation (REFs). A large body of evidence indicates that synapticplasticity and renewal of neurons (neurogenesis) are both impaired indepression and that there is a connection with memory disturbances(REFs). It is also evident that effective antidepressant treatments havestimulatory effects on neuroplasticity, neurogenesis and cognition.

Among the neurotrophins, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) hasbeen most extensively studied in relation to depression. BDNF, a memberof the “neurotrophic” family, was shown to promote survival of asubpopulation of dorsal root ganglion neurons, and was subsequentlypurified from pig brain (Barde, Y. A. et al., 1982, EMBO J. 1:549-533).The results of several meta-analyses on BDNF confirm significantcorrelations between serum BDNF levels and depressive state as well assuccessful antidepressant therapy (Sen et al., 2008; Bocchio-Chiavettoet al., 2010; Brunoni et al., 2008). Recent studies clearly demonstratethat serum levels of BDNF are significantly decreased in patients withMDD and that antidepressant treatments are capable of reversing thiseffect, indicating that serum BDNF is a potential biomarker of MDD andsuccessful treatment (Bocchio-Chiavetto et al., 2010; Schmidt and Duman2010; Dell'osso et al., 2010; Tadić et al., 2010).

It is important to note however that BDNF levels in serum are influencedby various determinants, such as age, sex, smoking status, urbanicity,etc. (Bus, B. et al., 2011, Psychoneuroendocrinol. 36:228-239).

Other neurotrophic factors that are involved in MDD belong to the groupof HVEM, PEDF and midkine.

HVEM

Neurons are surrounded by immune cells of dendritic origin. Dendriticcells are present in all tissues in the body and have a supportive andprotective role. Dendritic cells in the brain specialize into microgliacells. Microglia cells are present in the brain in approximately thesame numbers as neurons. The protective functions of microglia are broad(against neuronal overstimulation, toxins, infectious agents) and alsoinclude the guidance of proper formation of connections between neurons.Microglia are essential for neurogenesis and neuroplasticity and can notbe underestimated as player in MDD. The HVEM receptor in dendritic cellsis part of the TNF superfamily of receptor (Tumor NecrosisFactor-Receptors) (De Trez & Ware, 2008). TNF-R are stimulated afterstress, after immune activation and can elicit pro or antineuroplasticity effects.

HVEM stimulation can be decisive in the “choice” of the cell betweenprotective and detrimental responses. It is highly interesting that theTNF-R's blocking drug Etanercept ameliorates depressive symptoms (Uguz,Akman, Kucuksarac, & Tufekci, 2009).

PEDF

Adult stem cells are characterized by self-renewal and multilineagedifferentiation, and these properties seem to be regulated by signalsfrom adjacent differentiated cell types and by extracellular matrixmolecules, which collectively define the stem cell “niche.” Self-renewalis essential for the lifelong persistence of stem cells, but itsregulation is poorly understood. In the mammalian brain, neurogenesispersists in two germinal areas, the subventricular zone (SVZ) and thehippocampus, where continuous postnatal neuronal production seems to besupported by neural stem cells (NSCs). Pigment epithelium-derived factor(PEDF) is secreted by components of the murine SVZ and promotesself-renewal of adult NSCs in vitro. In addition, intraventricular PEDFinfusion activated slowly dividing stem cells, whereas a blockade ofendogenous PEDF decreased their cycling. This demonstrates that PEDF isa niche-derived regulator of adult NSCs and provide evidence for it'srole in NSC maintenance (Katlin B. Massirer, 2010;Carmen-Ramírez-Castillejo, 2012)

Midkine

Midkine (MK) is a heparin-binding cytokine, and promotes growth,survival, migration and other activities of target cells. MK is stronglyexpressed during embryogenesis especially at the midgestation period,but is expressed only at restricted sites in adults. MK expression isinduced upon tissue injury such as ischemic brain damage. MK is involvedin inflammatory diseases by enhancing migration of leukocytes, inducingchemokine production and suppressing regulatory T cells. An aptamer toMK suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalitis (Muramatsu,2001;Reiff, 2011).

In the current invention it has appeared that markers which relate tothe various theories as indicated above may be used for the diagnosis ofMDD, but also related diseases such as bipolar depression and anxietydisorders. In general, it is believed that the markers and marker setsof the present invention can be advantageously used for diagnosis ofaffective disorders.

As will be recognized by the skilled person, many of the above-mentionedmarkers have not yet been associated with affective disorders andespecially depression. Therefore, especially the use of the markersHVEM, midkine, cGMP, cortisol, pregnenolone, and calprotectin fordiagnosis of affective disorders in the urine, more preferably in thefirst morning urine of humans that are suspected of having an affectivedisorder is intended. Moreover, these compounds can also be used asmarkers for monitoring the progression of the disease or the progressionof curing of the disease. In a similar way for blood samples zonulin,cAMP, HVEM, pregnonolone, midkine and calprotectin can be used asindividual markers for the detection of affective disorders or for themonitoring of the progression of the disease or therapy effect thereon.

However, preferably a panel of two or more markers either measured inserum or in urine, or maybe both, is used to perform a reliablediagnosis of an affective disorder, preferably depression.

Such panels have recently been described in WO 2009/111595 and WO2010/097631. In WO 2009/111595 the use of a panel of biomarkerscomprising BDNF, IL-7, IL-10, IL-13, IL-15, IL-18, FABP, A1AT, B2M,factor VII, EGF, A2M, GST, RANTES, TIMP-1, PAI-1thyroxine and cortisol,or various subsets of this panel, has been described. Another paneldisclosed in this application consists of ACTH, BDNF, cortisol,dopamine, IL-1, IL-13, IL-18, norepinephrine, TSH, AVP and CRH, andadditional neuropeptide Y and platelet associated serotonin, or subsetsthereof.

In WO 2010/097631 a panel with overlapping biomarkers is presented,consisting of IL-17, IgA, cortisol, 1 apolipoprotein A, IL-6, complement3, Factor VII, SAP, B2M, ICAM-1, IL-1, TNF-alpha, MIF, angiotensinogen,NrCAM, CD40, CA125, HCC4, eotaxin 3, VEGF, haptoglobin, IL-1 alpha,apolipoprotein H and TIMP-1, and additionally one or more of AFP,Glutathione S-transferase alpha, eotaxin, toxoplasma, IGF-BP2, BDNF, SODand IL-15.

However, in none of these applications, evidence is given whether theindicated panels indeed are able to give a reliable diagnosis ofdepression.

Thus, there still remains need for further markers for diagnosis of mooddisorders, such as depression.

In this application the term ‘biomarker’ is used for a distinctivebiological or biologically derived indicator of a process, event orcondition. Biomarkers can be used in methods of diagnosis, e.g. clinicalscreening, and prognosis assessment and in monitoring the results oftherapy. They also can be used for identifying patients that are mostlikely to respond to a certain treatment, for drug screening and fordevelopment in medicine. Biomarkers and their uses are thereforevaluable for identification of new drug treatments and for discovery ofnew targets for drug treatment. Further they are valuable for exploringdosage regimes and drug combinations.

For the purpose of clarity and a concise description biomarkers aredescribed herein as part of the same or separate embodiments, however,it will be appreciated that the scope of the invention may includeembodiments having combinations of all or some of the biomarkersdescribed.

It should be clear to the skilled person that mood disorders that have acomplicated and yet not (completely) understood ontogenesis are hard todiagnose. Current diagnosis is based, as has been discussed in theintroduction, on behavioral and psychological grounds. In the literaturethere is evidence that many factors are involved and play a role in mooddisorders. Yet, the focus for developing a diagnosis based on biomarkershas thus far focused on single assays.

In this respect, the current invention adds more markers to the existingpanels of markers that have been disclosed in the prior art. The presentinventors have found that several compounds may be used as a marker for(helping in) diagnosing affective disorders, preferably depression. Ithas appeared, as is shown in the experimental section, that theseindividual markers already are able of discriminating between healthyand affected persons, although there is an overlap between the values ofthe two groups.

These individual markers are Lox-1, HVEM, midkine, pregnenolone, andcalprotectin, either measured in serum or in urine. When onlyconsidering measurements in urine, the markers cortisol and substance P,and cGMP may be added to the list. In a similar way for blood sampleszonulin and cAMP can additionally be used as individual marker for thedetection of affective disorders or for the monitoring of theprogression of the disease or therapy effect thereon.

To make diagnosis more reliable, it is preferred to add more than onemarker into the assay. As has been discussed in the introduction, thereare several hypotheses on the cause and development of mood disorders,especially depression. The idea behind the invention is to selectmarkers that represent different of these hypotheses, to get a panel ofcomplementary markers.

In FIGS. 4 and 5 for respectively serum samples and urine samples it isindicated which groups (sets of markers) are deemed to be applicable forthe diagnosis of affective disorders, especially depression, in totalfor serum with 38 markers and for urine with 32 markers. As can be seeneach time a set containing only 2 markers is indicated. As such, thepresent invention covers the use of a set of at least two markers aschosen from the group of sets indicated in the FIGS. 4 and 5 fordiagnosis of affective disorders, especially depression. However, such aset may optionally be complemented with any number of the other markerslisted in the Figure. Accordingly, a set of markers may comprise 2markers as indicated by the combinations mentioned in FIGS. 4 and 5, butmay also comprise 3 markers, where the third marker is chosen from anyof the markers listed in FIGS. 4 and 5. Alternatively, it may comprise 4markers, 5 markers, 6 markers and up to 28 markers selected from themarkers mentioned in FIGS. 4 and 5.

Further, a set of markers which are applicable for the current inventionmay consist of a combination of the above mentioned “serum” markers and“urine” markers.

Detection and/or quantification of these biomarkers may be performedusing an immunological method, involving an antibody, or fragmentthereof, capable of specific binding to the biomarker. Suitableimmunological methods include sandwich immunoassays, such as sandwichELISA, in which the detection of the biomarkers is performed using twoantibodies which recognize different epitopes on the biomarker;radioimmunoassay (RIA), direct, indirect or competitive enzyme linkedimmunosorbent assays (ELISA), enzyme immunoassays (EIA), fluorescenceimmunoassays (FIA), chemiluminescent immunoassays, western blotting,immunoprecipitation and any particle based immunoassay (e.g. using gold,silver or latex particles, magnetic particles, or Q-dots). Immunologicalmethods may for example be performed on a microtitre plate or on teststrips. It is also possible to perform the analysis with concurrentlab-on-a-chip techniques. These immunoassays are commercially available.In the exemplary part of the present application it has been indicatedfor each biomarker measured in the present application from which vendorthe assay that is the basis of the present invention has been used.

However, the invention is not limited to immunoassays. Analysis of thebiomarkers in the sample of the patient may be carried out with chemicalanalytical methods (like mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, micro-Ramanspectrometry), with magnetic radio imaging, flow cytometric analyses andall other quantitative analysis systems that are suitable for detectingproteins in fluids. The assays may also be performed on nucleic acidsthat encode for the (protein) markers or for enzymes that are in thebiosynthesis pathways of non-protein markers. Such assays are preferablyRT-PCR assays in which mRNA is measured from the sample. In such a case,the sample may be any cell material derived from the body. Alsoreceptor-based assays, using a receptor that is normally present in abiological system for the mentioned biomarker, as analytical tool may beused. Of course also RT-PCR assays for the receptor encoding nucleicacid, are usable. Apart from RT-PCR also hybridization techniques(northern blotting, microarray hybridization etc.) and sequencingtechniques can be used to determine DNA expression of said (protein)markers and/or their receptors.

Recently, scientists have focused on epigenetic variation, andspecifically changes in DNA methylation as a promising class ofbiomarker that may apply to a range of disorders (Petronis, 2010;Portela&Esteller, 2010). Methylation refers to the addition of methyl(CH₃) groups to the cytosine of CpGs in their promoter regions, and inmost normal cells these CpG “islands” are unmethylated. Methylation ofCpG islands in promoter regions can dramatically alter gene expression.For many years research focused heavily on the role of DNA methylationin cancer, but scientists have increasingly focused on the role of DNAmethylation in psychiatric disorders (Tsankova et al., 2007; Bredy etal., 2010). In fact, the mechanisms of action for some existingpsychiatric medications may involve epigenetic alterations (e.g.valproic acid). Epigenetic changes have been linked to changes in generegulation in neurons and downstream processes such as memory andcognition. The overall conclusion is that epigenetic changes may play animportant role in terms of long-term neurological changes (or “molecularand cellular memory”). Thus, DNA methylation can serve as importantbiomarker of treatment target.

The assays that are useful in the present invention are preferablyquantitative assays, in which the concentration of biomarker in thesample can be determined. This can—in principle—be achieved with all ofthe above mentioned detection methods. While interpreting the results ofsuch an assay, various determinants such as sex, age, smoking status,urbanicity, food and alcohol intake should be taken into account.

For all of these markers commercial immunoassays are available. Thesemarkers can all be assayed in body fluids, but it is also possible thatfor some biomarkers one type of body fluid is preferred. Thus if two ormore markers are tested, it can be the case that one marker is tested inthe blood and the other marker is tested in the urine and a third istested on nucleic acids derived from cell material. While interpretingthe results of such an assay, various determinants such as sex, age,smoking status, urbanicity, food and alcohol intake should be taken intoaccount.

Preferably, a panel of markers will be provided in an assay for thediagnosis of a mood disorder, preferably depression, in a patient,wherein this panel comprises markers reflecting the following groups:

markers reflecting the mineral homeostasis hypothesis: PTH, AVP and itsreceptors (V1a, V1b), cAMP, TRPM7 digoxin, TRPM6, RACK-1, estradiol,REA, substance P and its receptor NK1, EGF and its receptors ERBB1-4,aldosteron and its receptor (MRC) and all substances which are known toinfluence the excretion of aldosteron like angiotensin I and II andtheir receptors (AT1, AT2), ACTH and its receptor (MC2), potassium andrennin.

markers reflecting endothelin dysfunction and oxidative stress chosenfrom: oxLDL and its receptor LOX-1, nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane,endothelin-1 and its receptors (Eta,ETb), elastin/desmosine.

markers reflecting tight junction & leaky gut hypothesis: zonulinproteins and zonula occludens toxin_(zot); LIGHT and_lymphotoxin βreceptor (LTβR)

markers reflecting pro-inflammatory hypothesis chosen from: allphospholipase A2 enzymes, PAF/PLAF; and all downstream components ofarachidonic acid as well as dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid pathway like butnot limited to PGA2, PGE2 and its receptors, Tromboxane B2 and itsreceptor TP, Prostacyclin, PGF2 and PGD2; downstream 5-HPETE and otherHPETEs derivatives like but not limited to 5-HETE, LTB4 and itsreceptors (BLT1, BLT2 ect), LTC4, LTD4 LTE4; cysteinyl leukotrienereceptor type 1, lipoxin (LXA4, LXB4), lipoxin A₄ receptor, PGE1, PGA1,PGH1-15OH triene.

markers reflecting the immune-inflammation hypothesis chosen from:

lipocalin-2, TNF alpha, TNF beta, TNF alpha receptor type 1+2, HVEM,calprotectin, il-6 and its receptor, il-1 and its receptor,myeloperoxidase, galectin-8 and neopterin.

markers reflecting the neurogenesis hypothesis chosen from BDNF and itsreceptors TrkB and LNGFR, midkine and its receptor RPTPξ, bFGF and itsreceptor HVEM and PEDF.

markers reflecting a (change in) energy state: leptin and its receptor(LEP-R), adiponectin and its receptors (ADIPOR1, ADIPOR2 and CDH13)

other markers chosen from: vitamin D and its receptor (VDR), cortisoland its receptor (GCR), annexin-1, pregnenolone and its receptor (GCR),GABA, VILIP-1, Neuropeptide Y, MMP-1, BCL-2, Calreticulin,activin/inhibin cGMP and compounds from the NO-cGMP pathway includingall agents which are known to influence the excretion of cGMP likeatrial natriuretic peptide, brain natriuretic peptide and c-typenatriuretic peptide; vasoactive intestinal peptide and calcitoningene-related peptide, nitric oxide synthase (endothelial NOS, eNOS,neuronal NOS, nNOS) and l-arginine;

According to the invention a set of markers that can be used in an assayto diagnose an affective disorder, preferably MDD, bipolar depression oranxiety may be a set of two markers chosen from the above groups, whichgroup may be supplemented by any marker from the above-mentioned groups.For testing in urine, preferably, the set of two markers is chosen froma group of 32 markers, comprising activin, cAMP, aldosteron, digoxin,lipocalin, neopterin, LTB4, TNF alpha receptor 2, HVEM, PGE2,thromboxane B2, LOX-1, nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane, midkine, IGF,endothelin-1, c-GMP, GABA, vitamin D, cortisol, pregnenolone, substanceP, EGF, calprotectin, leptin, myeloperoxidase, neuropeptide Y, CCK,sVEGFR1, AVP and adiponectin. For testing in serum, preferably, the setof two markers is chosen from a group of 38 markers comprising activin,cAMP, aldosteron, lipocalin, TNF alpha receptor 2, HVEM, PGE2,thromboxane B2, LOX-1, nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane, BDNF, PEDF,midkine, endothelin-1, c-GMP, GABA, vitamin D, pregnenolone, substanceP, EGF, zonulin, calprotectin, VILIP, leptin, AVP (vasopressine),Neuropeptide Y, MMP-1, bFGF, digoxin, BCL-2, calreticulin,myeloperoxidase, LTB4, PLAF, sVEGFR1 and adiponectin.

Next to the above given overview of hypotheses for the ontogenesis ofdepression and compounds that play a role in there, for some of thesemarkers the relevance with respect to involvement and possibly diagnosisof depression has been presented in the literature. A large, but farfrom complete list of the relevant literature is appended hereinafter.

Further, the rationale for using lipocalin-2 as marker can be derivedfrom co-pending application NL 2007112.

As indicated above, the markers can be used to affirm a diagnosis basedon psychological and behavioral criteria. For each of the markers it canbe indicated whether or not the level measured is indicative of thepresence of a mood disorder, such as depression. Information to thatrespect can be found in the cited literature and the practicalapplication of this knowledge is demonstrated in the experimental partof the present application Obviously, the more markers are used in thepanel, and consequently, the more markers that are tested with a levelthat would suspect disease, the more reliable the diagnosis ofdepression can be made.

Of course, if all or nearly all markers of the set that has been usedrespond positive for depression, the diagnosis should be considereddefinitive. Alternatively, a diagnostic score can be calculated as isexemplified on pages 8 and 9 of WO 2009/111595.

On basis of the initial results with the markers, as presented in theexperimental section below, it has been established that a preferredembodiment of a panel of markers for serum/plasma assays which may beused for a diagnosis of a mood disorder, preferably depression, with ahigh confidentiality, comprises the markers TNF-R2, cortisol,thromboxane, endothelin, leptin and vitamin D. In order to furtherincrease the confidentiality of the diagnosis, this set may be extendedwith the group of biomarkers consisting of calprotectin, cAM, zonulinand substance P. For a still further increase of the confidentiality theassay may be further extended with the markers BDNF, midkine,nitrotyrosine, LTB4, neuropeptide Y, telomerase and aldosterone.

Similarly, for testing in urine only a set of markers which provides areliable diagnosis consists of cGMP, cortisol, calprotectin,thromboxane, aldosterone, HVEM and substance P. A further improvement inthe confidentiality of the diagnosis can be achieved to further includethe biomarkers leptin, LTB4, isoprostane and midkine. An even furtherincrease of the correctness of the diagnosis can be achieved by furtherincluding the biomarkers cAMP, endothelin, TNF-R2 and neuropeptide Y.

When mixing both serum/plasma biomarkers and urine biomarkers, theminimal set of markers that is able to provide with a reliable diagnosis(significance p<0.00001) consists of the biomarkers TNF-R2 (s), cortisol(s), thromboxane (s), leptin (s), endothelin (s), cGMP (u), cortisol(u), aldosterone (u), thromboxane (u), HVEM (u) and substance P (u), inwhich the suffix (s) or (u) indicates whether this marker should bemeasured in serum/plasma (s) or in urine (u). In order to increase theprecision of the diagnosis, this set of biomarkers may be extended withthe group of Vitamin D (s), cAMP (s), zonulin (s), substance P (s) andcalprotectin (u). A further increase in precision may be gained byfurther combining the above mentioned marker sets with a further set ofmarkers, comprising calprotectin (s), leptin (u), LTB4 (u), isoprostane(u) and midkine (u).

The above-mentioned groups are also listed in Table 4 below.

While interpreting the results of such an assay, various determinantssuch as sex, age, smoking status, urbanicity, food and alcohol intakeshould be taken into account. It can also be deduced from the citedliterature (e.g. Bus et al., 2010) that the presence of a marker isrelated to a factor such as sex, where in males a higher concentrationis found than in females, or to a factor such as age, where in elderlypersons a higher level of a marker is found than in younger persons. Themeasured values should of course be interpreted in the light of thesecorrelations, which are known to the skilled person, as is demonstratedfrom the cited literature herein.

Preferably, the assay, when performed on urine, more preferably on thefirst morning urine sample, also includes a simultaneous assay forcreatinine. Creatinine is one of the byproducts of protein metabolism.Under normal conditions it is present in the blood and is excreted as afinal metabolite in the urine. Urine creatinine levels are routinelyused as part of kidney function diagnosis. In particular, alteredcreatinine levels in urine are indicative of kidney diseases such asacute or chronic nephritis, nephrosis, and the like. Because normativevalues for creatinine excretion have been established, urine creatininelevels are also useful for correction of assays for other compounds, asthey document the adequacy of the urine collection for such assays. Inparticular, the creatinine correction can be used to correct for urinedilution, thus giving a possibility to standardize measuredconcentrations irrespective of the water content of the urine and/or thetime of the day when the urine was produced. Further, changes in renalfunction which influence rates of excretion, can be corrected bymeasurement of creatinine in urine. Any values given in the experimentalpart for assays done on urine have been corrected by measurement ofcreatinine.

The biomarkers of the present invention or such a replacement moleculeare recognised by ‘biosensors’, which may comprise a ligand or ligandscapable of specific binding to the biomarker. Such biosensors are usefulin detecting and/or quantifying the biomarker, preferably inquantifying.

Especially useful biosensors are antibodies. The term ‘antibody’ as usedherein may comprise polyclonal, monoclonal, bispecific, humanised orchimeric antibodies, single chain antibodies, Fab fragments and F(ab′)2fragments, fragments produced by a Fab expression library,anti-idiotypic antibodies and epitope-binding fragments. The term‘antibody’ also refers to immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor molecules,i.e. molecules that contain an antigen-binding site that specificallybinds an antigen. The immunoglobulin molecules can be of any class (e.g.IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM) or subclasses thereof. If the biomarker is anucleic acid, a specific probe can be used as ‘biosensor’. Preferably insuch a case, the target DNA is first amplified in a PCR reaction withsuitable primer sequences.

The identification of the biomarkers that are specific for a mooddisorder, especially depression and more particularly major depressivedisorder is key to integration of diagnostic procedures and therapeuticregimes. Appropriate diagnostic tools such as biosensors can bedeveloped in methods and uses of the invention; and detection andquantification of the biomarker can be performed using a biosensor in amicroanalytical system, a microengineered system, a microseparationsystem, an immunochromatography system or other suitable analyticaldevices (such as Raman or mass spectrography and the like). Thebiosensor may be incorporated in an immunological method for detectionof the biomarker(s), or via electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical (e.g.hologram) or acoustic technologies. Using these techniques, it ispossible to detect the target biomarker(s) at the anticipatedconcentrations found in biological samples. Thus, according to a furtheraspect of the invention there is provided an apparatus for diagnosing ormonitoring a mood disorder, especially depression and more particularlymajor depressive disorder which comprises one or more biosensors in amicroanalytical, microengineered, microseparation and/orimmunochromatography system configured to detect and/or quantify any ofthe biomarkers defined herein.

The biomarker(s) of the invention can be detected using a biosensorincorporating technologies based on “smart” holograms, or high frequencyacoustic systems, such systems are particularly amenable to “bar code”or array configurations.

In smart hologram sensors (Smart Holograms Ltd, Cambridge, UK), aholographic image is stored in a thin polymer film that is sensitized toreact specifically with the biomarker. On exposure, the biomarker reactswith the polymer leading to an alteration in the image displayed by thehologram.

The test result read-out can be a change in the optical brightness,image, color and/or position of the image. For qualitative andsemi-quantitative applications, a sensor hologram can be read by eye,thus removing the need for detection equipment. A simple color sensorcan be used to read the signal when quantitative measurements arerequired. Opacity or color of the sample does not interfere withoperation of the sensor. The format of the sensor allows multiplexingfor simultaneous detection of several substances. Reversible andirreversible sensors can be designed to meet different requirements, andcontinuous monitoring of a particular biomarker of interest is feasible.

Suitably, methods for detection of one or more biomarkers according tothe invention combine biomolecular recognition with appropriate means toconvert detection of the presence or quantity of the biomarker in thesample into a signal.

Biosensors to detect one or more biomarkers can also be detected byacoustic, plasmon resonance, holographic and microengineered sensors.Imprinted recognition elements, thin film transistor technology,magnetic acoustic resonator devices and other novel acousto-electricalsystems may be employed for detection of the one or more biomarkers ofthe invention.

Methods involving detection and/or quantification of one or morebiomarkers of the invention can be performed on bench-top instruments,or can be incorporated onto disposable, diagnostic or monitoringplatforms that can be used in a non-laboratory environment, e.g. in thephysician's office or at the patient's bedside. Suitable platforms forperforming methods of the invention include “credit” cards with opticalor acoustic readers. The sensor systems can be configured to allow thedata collected to be electronically transmitted to the physician forinterpretation and thus can form the basis for remote diagnosis.

Methods of the invention can be performed in array format, e.g. on achip, or as a multi well array. This enables testing for severalbiomarkers or for only one biomarker in multiple subjects or samplessimultaneously. Methods can be adapted into platforms for single tests,or multiple identical or multiple non-identical tests, the lastespecially in the case if urine-based markers are combined withserum-based markers, and can be performed in high throughput format.Methods of the invention may comprise performing one or more additional,different tests to confirm or exclude diagnosis, and/or to furthercharacterize a condition.

A kit for diagnosing or monitoring a mood disorder, especiallydepression and more particularly major depressive disorder, orpredisposition thereto is provided. Suitably a kit according to theinvention may contain one or more components selected from the group: abiosensor specific for the biomarker or a molecule upstream ordownstream in the biological pathway for that biomarker, where thebiomarker is one of the biomarkers provided herein; one or morecontrols; one or more reagents and one or more consumables; optionallytogether with instructions for use of the kit in accordance with any ofthe methods defined herein.

The identification of biomarkers for mood disorders, especiallydepression and more particularly major depressive disorder permitsintegration of diagnostic procedures and therapeutic regimes. Currentlyeffectiveness of drug treatment or psychotherapy is difficult to test,and it has thus far not been possible to perform rapid assessment oftherapy response. Traditionally, many anti-depressant therapies requiretreatment lasting weeks to months for a given therapeutic approach.Detection of a biomarker of the invention can be used to screen subjectsprior to their participation in clinical trials. The biomarkers providethe means to indicate therapeutic response, failure to respond,unfavourable side-effect profile, and degree of medication compliance.The biomarkers may be used to stop treatment in non-responders at a veryearly stage. They can also be used to fine-tune dosage, minimize thenumber of prescribed medications, and to reduce the delay in attainingeffective therapy. Thus by monitoring a biomarker of the invention,patient care can be tailored precisely to match the needs determined bythe disorder and the pharmacogenomic profile of the patient. Thebiomarker can thus be used to titrate the optimal dose and to identify apositive therapeutic response.

Biomarker-based tests, such as provided by the present invention,provide a first line assessment of ‘new’ patients, and provide objectivemeasures for accurate and rapid diagnosis, in a time frame and withprecision, not achievable using the current subjective measures.Furthermore, diagnostic biomarker tests, such as provided by the presentinvention, are useful to identify family members or patients at highrisk of developing major depressive disorder. This permits initiation ofappropriate therapy, or preventive measures, e.g. managing risk factors.These approaches are recognized to improve outcome and may prevent overtonset of the disorder.

Biomarker monitoring methods, biosensors and kits are also vital aspatient monitoring tools. If pharmacological treatment is assessed to beinadequate, then therapy can be reinstated or increased; a change intherapy can be given if appropriate. As the biomarkers are sensitive tothe state of the disorder, they provide an indication of the impact ofdrug therapy.

Diagnostic kits for the diagnosis and monitoring of a mood disorder,preferably depression, most preferably major depressive disorder, aredescribed herein. A method of diagnosis or monitoring the biomarkers maycomprise quantifying the biomarker in a sample from the patient andcomparing the level of the biomarker present in said sample with one ormore controls. For monitoring, the control may be a test sample of thesame patient at an earlier point in time.

Preferably, the diagnosis for the presence of a mood disorder in apatient according to the present invention is used to confirm asuspicion of a mood disorder, such as depression. This means thatpreferably the patient is already suspected of having a mood disorder atthe moment that de the assay for one or more of the biomarkers isperformed. In this respect, the invention can be considered as a methodfor enhancing the diagnosis of depression.

One of the main advantages of the present invention is that it providesan easy and reliable way to monitor progress of the disease and/oreffectiveness of a therapy. To this end, the values for one or more ofthe above identified biomarkers for a subject are determined at acertain moment (null-value) and after an amount of time this procedureis repeated. Over the time, several repeat measurements can beperformed. In the mean time therapy can e.g. be started or changed.Change(s) in the levels of biomarker will then indicate theeffectiveness of the therapy or the progress of the disease.

Suitably, the time elapsed between taking samples from a subjectundergoing monitoring will be several days, a week, two weeks, a month,several months or longer. Samples may be taken prior to and/or duringand/or following antidepressant therapy. Samples can be taken atintervals over the remaining life, or a part thereof, of a patient.

Thus, in this way, in a non-invasive and easy manner, the progress ofthe disease can be monitored.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Ten patients with DSM IV diagnosed major depression having a Hamiltonscore of 18 or more, one person with DSM IV diagnosed anxiety disorderhaving a Hamilton score of 18 or more and 1 person with DSM IV diagnosedbipolar depression having a Hamilton score of 18 or more were matchedwith respect to age, gender and ethnic origin with 12 healthy persons.

From all these persons blood and urine was collected throughvenapunction in 9 mL tubes. These were centrifuged for 10 minutes at3000×g. Aliquots were divided over 25 tubes; these were held at 4° C.and stored at −80° C. until use. Urine samples were taken from morningmidstream urine, which were directly stored at 4° C. The same day thesesamples were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3000×g and aliquoted over 20tubes. These were stored at −80° C. until further use.

These samples were tested with commercially available assays for thefollowing biomarkers. The assays were obtained from the followingvendors and the assays were performed according to the instructions ofthe vendor, unless otherwise indicated hereinafter.

R&D systems Europe Ltd. (Abingdon, United Kingdom) for Cortisol, LTB4,Thromboxane, Endothelin-1, Substance P, PGE2, c-AMP, and c-GMP;

Ray Biotech Inc (Norcross, Ga., USA) for Activin, Lox-1, Leptin, EGF,Lipocalin, adiponectin, TNFalphareceptor 2 and HVEM,

Biovendor GmbH (Heidelberg, Germany) for PEDF, VILIP-1;

Sanbio BV (Hycult biotech, Uden, The Netherlands) for Calprotectin;

Northwest Life Science Specialties, LLC (Vancouver, Wash., USA) forIsoprostane-2, and nitrotyrosine;

Immundiagnostik GmbH (Bensheim, Germany) for Zonulin;

LDN GmbH (Nordhorn, Germany) for GABA;

IBL-Hamburg GmbH (Hamburg, Germany) for Neopterin;

Cellmid Limited (Perth, Australia) for Midkine;

Cusabio (Wuhan, China) for Galectin-8;

Immunology Consultants Lab., Inc. (Portland, Oreg., USA) formyeloperoxidase; Diasource (Leuven, Belgium) for Pregnenolone, vitaminD;

Peninsula Laboratories, LLC (San Carlos, Calif., USA) for NPY andArg-vasopressin, Monobind Inc (Lake Forest, Calif., USA) for digoxin,

Promega Benelux BV (Leiden, The Netherlands) for BDNF; and NovaTeinBio(Cambridge, Mass., USA) for Beclin.

The testing was performed with ELISA technology. All procedures wereperformed according to the manufacturer's instructions making use of anELISA plate washer PW40 (Sanofi Pasteur). Read-outs of theMicrotiterplate were digitally saved and further used for the datareduction. All data analysis has been done by making use of standardcurves of OD values obtained by the Microtiterplate reader (Multiscan EFtype 35, ThermoScientific) against concentrations as provided by theindividual manufacturers of the kits. Individual measured patient samplevalues were obtained by interpolation of the sample OD value and the ODvalues of the standard curve obtained in each run.

The results of the individual markers in the individual samples arepresented in Table 2 for the serum samples and in Table 3 for the urinesamples. The urine samples were corrected for creatinin.

The data from the patients and control persons were collected and forevery parameter two values were determined, if possible. To obtain thetwo values for every parameter a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC)was determined using the statistical program Medcalc (version 11.4.0.0,http://www.medcalc.org). A first value was determined which woulddiscriminate between the two groups being the criterion for the Cut-offfor having the disease, set at >95% of the calculated PositivePredictive Value (+PV). Any sample value measured exceeding this firstdiscriminative value (Cut-off-Dis, for diseased) is considereddiscriminative for the diseased state. The second value was thereciprocal situation: being the criterion for the Cut-off for not havingthe disease, set at >95% of the calculated Negative Predictive Value(−PV). Any sample value measured exceeding this second discriminativevalue (Cut-off-Excl., excluding the diseased state) is considereddiscriminative for the healthy state. Any value found in between theCut-off-Dis and Cut-off-Excl is considered non-discriminative. Theparameters where the measurements enabled the determination of one orboth of these cut-off values were regarded as being sufficientdiscriminatory to be used as a marker for the present invention.

On basis of results of the Cut-off-Dis and Cut-off-Excl. for eachparameter the results were further analyzed by assigning the samplesbeing Positive, Negative and indeterminate. A positive sample wasassigned the value +1, a Negative sample the value ‘−1’, and theindeterminate the value ‘0’. Next, a set of markers was constructed. Persample, in each set parameters, the sum of all Pos, Neg andindeterminate results (expressed in +1, −1, 0) was determined, whichresultant values were then tested for sensitivity and specificity by ROCanalysis: optimal cut-off results obtained with each set of markers wereused to assign patients being diseased or to exclude controls from beingdiseased from the resultant +PV and −PV for each set of markers.

Three sets of data were analysed separately to make choices forcombinations of biomarkers in each set. The sets were based on thebody-fluid in which the biomarkers are detected: serum/plasma, urine, orthe combination serum/plasma and urine. In all three sets, based onincreasing contribution, a reduction in the numbers of biomarkers can bereached, starting with the 4th order (i.e. all markers) down to the 3rd,the 2nd and ultimately to the 1st order. Significance of a contributionof biomarkers in the respective order is based on the position of theArea under the Curve (AUC) of the measured combination in the phenotyperandomisation histogram of the AUC as defined for ROC analysis.Significance is any position within the right 0% to 5% region. Thesignificances shown in Table 4 are given upon phenotype randomisationagainst the total number of biomarkers included in the 4^(th)-1^(st)order biomarkers. The AUC varies from 0.500 to 1.000. The higher thevalue of the AUC, the better its sensitivity and specificity. The AUC istherefore chosen to evaluate the performance of each combination ofbiomarkers and to make choices for optimization purposes.

Within each ‘order’ three or four analyses are done, based on differentinclusion criteria at 90% and 95% respectively. The more stringent theinclusion criterion, the less the number of biomarkers that are includedfulfill the inclusion criteria (‘participating biomarkers’). Uponincreasing the stringency starting in the 4th order, the amount ofparticipating biomarkers decreases, allowing to make an optimisationchoice. Those biomarkers under a certain condition that are found not toparticipate under higher stringencies are excluded in the next lowerorder, stepwise.

Description of the Choices.

1. Urine Plus Serum/Plasma.

Testing significance at stringency to include 7.5% for the 90% and 95%conditions, shows a phenotype randomisation significance of p=0.04.Under this condition, all 40 biomarkers are included making eachbiomarker a potential candidate irrespective the body fluid in which itis tested (randomisation run characteristics: AUC_(−real)=0.855,AUC_(−random)=0.801+/−0.032, number of runs=3025, fraction left of0.855=95.7%, active biomarkers 40/40, Software Randomisation checkversion 1.05, see table).

4^(th) order: all 40 tested biomarkers appeared to be included.

3^(rd) order: excluded 19 biomarkers at inclusion condition 20%/12.5%,remaining 21 biomarkers.

2^(nd) order: excluded 3 biomarkers at inclusion condition 25%/12.5%,remaining 16 biomarkers.

1^(st) order: excluded 5 biomarkers at inclusion condition 25%/15%,remaining 11 biomarkers.

Condition of maximum performance, AUC_(max)=0.879, reached with 21biomarkers: 10 serum biomarkers plus 11 urine biomarkers. Condition ofoptimal performance, AUC_(min)=0.858, reached with 11 biomarkers:combination of 5 biomarkers in serum and 6 biomarkers in urine.

2. Urine.

A stringency to include 10% at 90% and 95%, obtains a significance ofp=0.046. Under this condition, all 19 biomarkers are included makingeach urine biomarker tested a potential candidate. Randomisation runcharacteristics: AUC_(−real)=0.781, AUC_(−random)=0.721+/−0.037, numberof runs=3538, fraction left of 0.721=95.4%, active biomarkers 19/19,Software Randomisation check version 1.05, data not shown in table.

4^(th) order: all 19 biomarkers appeared to be included.

3^(rd) order excluded 4 biomarkers at inclusion condition 14%/10%:remaining 15 biomarkers.

2^(nd) order excluded 4 biomarkers at inclusion condition 20%/12.5%:remaining 11 biomarkers.

1^(st) order excluded 4 biomarkers at inclusion condition 25%/15%:remaining 7 biomarkers.

Condition of maximum performance, AUC_(max)=0.825, reached with 11biomarkers. Condition of optimum performance, AUC_(opt)=0.823, reachedwith 11 biomarkers.

3. Serum/Plasma

A stringency to include 7.5% at 90% and 95% shows a significance ofp=0.030. Under this condition, all 21 biomarkers are included makingeach serum/plasma biomarker tested a potential candidate. Randomisationrun characteristics: AUC_(−real)=0.793, AUC_(−random)=0.727+/−0.036,number of runs=3154, fraction left of 0.721=97.0%, active biomarkers21/21, Software Randomisation check version 1.05, data not shown intable.

4^(th) order: 21 biomarkers included.

3^(rd) order excluded 4 biomarkers at inclusion condition 15%/7.5%,remaining 17 biomarkers.

2^(nd) order excluded 7 biomarkers at inclusion condition20%/12.5%,remaining 10 biomarkers.

1^(st) order excluded 4 biomarkers at inclusion condition 25%/14%,remaining 6 biomarkers.

Condition of maximum performance, AUC_(max)=0.793, reached with 21biomarkers. Condition of optimum performance, AUC_(opt)=0.775, reachedwith 10 biomarkers.

TABLE 2 Clin. Score Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum inclusionhamilton Nr. 1 Nr. 2 Nr. 3 Nr. 4 Nr. 5 Nr. 6 Nr. 7 number D174106-Thromboxane 4701-cAMP 4007-Endothelin 4902-Aldosteron 4901-Zonulin0401-Lox-1 0302-Vitamin D  2 2 11.9 16 0.60 52 2.85 82 26.2  25 2 17.0 81.08 53 1.72 98 19.0  28 2 20.0 13 0.86 52 2.67 77 17.8  39 2 2.5 7 1.4037 3.14 26 17.4  42 2 11.5 15 0.86 47 2.58 22 7.7  85 2 11.7 8 1.01 793.75 81 8.9 112 2 20.0 15 1.05 61 3.68 76 24.5 151 2 1.51 16 0.46 462.93 1 37.1 232 2 11.9 12 0.71 73 3.51 110 31.5 246 2 17.1 12 1.03 542.79 57 22.6 240 3 20.0 7 1.08 49 3.25 38 18.7 228 6 10.5 12 0.68 462.24 81 28.6  34 20 0.7 19 1.51 56 3.62 90 28.3  36 21 7.2 28 0.63 873.82 194 14.5  41 22 2.5 15 0.38 140 3.19 81 42.1 209 25 5.0 19 0.53 493.89 52 44.7  47 27 2.5 13 1.65 68 4.57 106 6.6 122 27 20.0 81 1.85 8312.64 41 10.1  56 28 1.49 11 1.25 54 3.40 20 32.6 245 28 0.92 19 0.86 1013.39 148 27.7 242 30 6.8 15 1.01 67 3.79 128 28.5 176 35 2.5 8 1.81 333.57 46 43.7  69 36 1.4 10 0.86 87 3.78 27 15.1 148 37 5.7 10 1.10 232.29 65 53.2 Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum inclusionNr. 8 Nr. 9 Nr. 10 Nr. 11 Nr. 12 Nr. 13 Nr. 14 Nr. 15 numberxxxx-(Activin (Inhib

3810-TNF R2 4704-PEDF 3906-Substance P 0301-cGMP 5204-Pregnenolon3808-EGF 4402-GABA  2 Has to be 34 289 53 1.1 7.3 11.6 316  25 measured21.9 452 55 0.0 5.9 15.1 5  28 (as per 47 323 126 6.0 3.9 x 41  3928-01-2013) 47 329 64 3.4 11.3 14.1 14  42 40 232 68 11.3 0.6 6.3 25  8528 252 14 11.6 3.6 17.7 288 112 30 285 21 4.6 14.5 31.0 38 151 39 279120 19.4 6.2 1.9 11 232 52 282 18 7.6 x 14.1 7 246 60.8 232 43 9.0 7.99.9 6 240 32 310 61 2.7 6.3 31.0 409 228 49 195 104 0.8 24.7 21.0 14  3475 1786 100 9.3 3.3 5.5 9  36 32 1651 26 9.3 x 12.2 275  41 81 226 515.9 x 8.8 50 209 45 174 10 6.5 1.0 8.2 252  47 58 209 9 10.2 16.1 29.930 122 43 1686 34 9.1 6.1 11.2 33  56 77 211 61 0.0 16.8 5.6 268 245 36239 37 6.9 3.1 13.3 46 242 38 202 7 3.0 21.5 7.8 251 176 35 261 31 9.314.7 5.4 22  69 33 268 12 0.6 19.5 x 16 148 33 293 67 2.7 20.7 6.5 45Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Nr. 22 inclusion Nr. 16 Nr. 17Nr. 18 Nr. 19 Nr. 20 Nr. 21 4109- number 4702-Calreticulin4009-Neuropeptide 4207-VILIP 4703-Myeloperoxi

0304-AVP (Vasopre

3801-Leptin (pg/ml

Galectin-8  2 0 0.47 4 8 162 217 0.0  25 0 0.37 4 8 61 177 38.9  28 200.52 54 8 114 19 61.3  39 0 0.48 9 11 48 12 14.8  42 0 0.42 4424 5 162158 33.5  85 2.4 0.59 0 12 74 85 55.9 112 0 0.38 0 12 46 66 52.5 151 00.48 0 4 77 11 3.6 232 0 0.44 0 10 53 15 39.5 246 0 0.54 11 14 40 1542.3 240 0 0.39 0 8 51 16 9.3 228 1.8 0.43 11 6.9 62 22 3.8  34 0 0.5845 11 11 74 33.8  36 0 0.38 3 12 65 10 60.8  41 1.6 7.21 13591 8.8 13483 0.0 209 0 0.49 4 4 157 13 18.1  47 0 0.54 4 12 157 21 11.5 122 0 0.350 4 51 399 54.2  56 0 0.45 4 4 21 19 32.2 245 0 0.31 3 7 83 171 8.4 2420 0.63 9 9 23 399 1.5 176 0.0 0.39 13 8.0 77 64 0.0  69 1.0 0.45 3 3.6 0189 1.6 148 0 0.65 2127 8 61 4 9.8 Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum SerumSerum Serum Nr. 30 inclusion Nr. 23 Nr. 24 Nr. 25 Nr. 26 Nr. 27 Nr. 28Nr. 29 3905- number 4206-Calprotectin 4303-bFGF 4601-Nitrotyrosine3802-Lipocalin-2 3803-Adiponectin 5201-LTB4 3806-HVEM Prostaglandin  27.8 1 7 223 4231 129 148 159  25 5.6 1 0 106 3540 196 215 398  28 6.4 219 120 7078 119 x 569  39 2.5 2 0 85 48928 57 320 176  42 8.1 1 0 6815801 64 150 338  85 13.6 233 110 124 6109 278 346 173 112 5.7 166 0 1682219 118 292 290 151 7.0 1 7 68 13889 53 76 109 232 13.4 1 0 84 2444 135380 243 246 7.6 4 36 106 13889 23 266 459 240 5.6 1 0 96 48928 155 368305 228 6.1 6 0 74 5809 92 272 220  34 18.6 98 0 166 2993 102 210 7  3610.6 1 24 106 2514 118 274 29  41 9.3 9 6 124 14172 107 130 249 209 7.11 0 118 13853 75 318 340  47 7.8 1 6 75 9366 150 443 208 122 4.7 9 0 657019 361 171 959  56 9.2 2 0 102 14293 40 103 277 245 7.4 122 0 70 1819104 457 229 242 12.9 397 16 75 5664 60 240 199 176 7.0 22 8 60 16831 35184 201  69 5.7 1 0 151 5073 61 206 156 148 5.2 5 0 85 48928 50 371 337Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum Serum inclusion Nr. 31 Nr. 32Nr. 33 Nr. 34 Nr. 35 Nr. 36 Nr. 37 Nr. 38 number 4003-Midkine 4302-BDNF4005-Isoprostane 3809-MMP-1 4404-Digoxin 5202-PLA2-PAF 5203-sVEGF4602-BCl-2  2 126 534 0.00 3048 313 6.0 20.3 0.0  25 103 338 0.00 820252 3.8 6.8 0.0  28 2718 555 0.00 5310 54 10.1 19.0 15.3  39 103 7830.05 6614 25 5.3 57.2 0.0  42 154 655 0.00 4219 75 4.8 7.1 0.0  85 165929 0.08 8532 282 8.6 16.4 1.1 112 110 835 0.05 4636 21 9.9 8.9 0.0 151125 290 0.20 2081 53 5.5 4.6 0.0 232 161 525 0.00 2699 128 4.9 15.0 0.0246 265 585 1.21 4440 84 4.2 6.9 0.6 240 133 737 0.00 4095 54 5.3 19.00.0 228 150 488 0.00 2981 66 6.8 9.3 0.0  34 69 642 0.00 3428 134 5.720.3 0.0  36 111 672 0.46 4342 114 8.9 18.2 0.0  41 245 443 0.00 1714 311.7 6.1 20.2 209 131 494 0.00 2989 49 6.7 21.2 0.0  47 168 756 3.23 327523 7.1 6.5 0.0 122 77 355 0.00 1145 613 13.6 17.1 0.0  56 280 577 0.002311 53 6.6 24.1 0.0 245 253 773 0.00 7970 20 5.5 9.5 1.2 242 74 4930.00 2993 296 4.4 9.3 0.0 176 228 715 0.63 3927 74 3.6 14.7 0.0  69 89326 0.00 5180 264 7.3 12.6 0.0 148 106 630 0.00 4214 67 5.4 37.1 0.0

indicates data missing or illegible when filed

TABLE 3 Urine Clin. Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Nr. 7 inclusionScore Nr. 1 Nr. 2 Nr. 3 Nr. 4 Nr. 5 Nr. 6 xxxx-Activin number hamiltonD17 4106-Thromboxan 5204-Pregnenolon 3806-HVEM xxxx-Vit. D 4903-cGMP3906-Substance P (inhibin) 2 2 0.132 0.24 24 Has to be 0.18 4.0 Has tobe 25 2 0.15 0.34 29 measured 0.42 8.4 measured (as per 28 2 0.115 0.723 (as per 0.40 4.4 28-01-2013) 39 2 0.14 0.6 38 28-01-2013) 0.15 5.5 422 0.26 3.7 40 0.36 13.2 85 2 0.17 0.4 30 0.51 3.0 112 2 0.19 0.4 37 0.572.7 151 2 0.35 0.4 24 0.89 1.7 232 2 0.08 1.0 24 0.45 0.7 246 2 0.140.20 27 0.43 1.1 240 3 0.16 1.0 37 0.64 18.3 228 6 0.26 0.27 24 0.21 0.434 20 0.49 1.0 28 0.57 11.3 36 21 0.21 0.4 37 0.39 23.5 41 22 0.28 0.846 0.89 15.0 209 25 0.23 1.6 21 0.41 5.4 47 27 0.46 0.6 61 0.74 11.2 12227 0.30 1.2 29 0.40 1.9 56 28 0.14 1.9 40 0.36 6.3 245 28 0.25 0.9 450.54 61.8 242 30 0.27 4.7 53 0.66 11.5 176 35 0.24 1.0 35 0.80 5.7 69 36ND 1.1 ND ND ND 148 37 0.25 1.1 40 0.30 1.4 Urine Urine Urine UrineUrine Nr. 12 Urine Urine Nr. 14 Urine inclusion Nr. 8 Nr. 9 Nr. 10 Nr.11 4006-Isoprostane Nr. 13 4009-Neuropeptide Nr. 15 number 4501-cAMP4502-Cortisol 4902-Aldosteron 3801-Leptin urine 0401-LOX-1 Y3803-Adiponectin 2 4.3 0.31 4.2 0 0.04 81.6 4 362 25 7.9 0.25 4.9 0 0.0298.5 4 454 28 4.0 0.30 3.5 19 0.03 76.9 4 317 39 5.7 0.41 4.4 1 0.0526.0 3 1376 42 5.3 0.15 4.7 1 0.03 21.6 18 1091 85 7.8 0.58 6.9 5 0.0481.1 15 704 112 4.9 0.20 3.6 3 0.05 75.8 8 6702 151 8.5 0.77 5.4 0 0.041.0 14 1811 232 7.9 0.26 5.1 1 0.05 109.5 2.01 2861 246 3.2 0.34 4.9 100.02 56.7 9 370 240 6.0 0.30 9.2 5 0.03 37.9 13 1735 228 5.5 0.46 4.3 10.05 80.8 6 625 34 10.2 0.26 4.1 11 0.07 90.4 23 341 36 6.2 0.15 7.2 70.04 194.2 3 454 41 8.4 0.12 11.8 6 0.07 81.1 45 1742 209 4.9 0.25 3.1 10.02 52.3 10 517 47 7.2 0.28 5.2 0 0.10 105.9 9 182 122 5.5 0.32 5.9 480.03 40.8 11 845 56 6.1 0.40 4.6 10 0.03 19.5 7 840 245 4.8 0.32 8.6 10.03 148.0 5 1100 242 9.3 0.11 9.6 2 0.04 128.0 11 1362 176 23.4 0.467.6 3 0.13 45.7 5 549 69 ND ND ND ND ND 27.0 ND ND 148 7.9 0.34 4.1 400.03 65.3 13 721 Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Nr. 23inclusion Nr. 16 Nr. 17 Nr. 18 Nr. 19 Nr. 20 Nr. 21 Nr. 220304-Vasopressin number 4601-Nitrotyrosine 5201-LTB4 4402-GABA4206-Calprotectin 3802-Lipocalin-2 3905-PGE-2 4003-Midkine (AVP) 2 0.00232 129 0.2 8 33 14.6 2.7 25 0.003 21 137 0.8 9 45 7.2 1.8 28 0.002 27105 0.2 1.3 92 11.2 1.9 39 0.004 38 398 0.8 6 38 3.9 0.5 42 0.008 54 5793.1 42 54 1.0 20.3 85 0.005 26 92 0.1 3 26 8.8 1.7 112 0.005 50 73 0.310 33 10.1 1.0 151 0.005 31 212 3.9 25 49 9.6 13.5 232 0.002 26 213 0.30.8 23 6.2 0.8 246 0.002 22 95 1.6 40 21 10.0 1.8 240 0.005 35 176 0.52.0 47 31.6 2.3 228 0.623 25 95 0.9 4 31 8.6 2.8 34 0.252 46 144 0.7 665 11.1 1.8 36 0.395 24 174 0.0 3 32 8.8 1.3 41 0.010 57 128 5.3 12 6213.6 1.2 209 0.003 38 97 0.5 18 40 13.4 1.5 47 0.001 28 127 1.1 9 81 9.10.5 122 0.004 50 400 0.1 4 34 12.8 2.3 56 0.005 31 353 1.3 29 19 8.3 2.1245 2.312 47 481 0.9 8 42 11.1 2.1 242 0.008 46 758 3.5 21 48 14.2 4.7176 0.004 48 254 2.9 96 82 261.4 1.7 69 ND 43 ND ND ND ND ND 2.7 1480.004 27 398 1.3 7 42 26.3 1.5 Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine Urine UrineUrine Nr. 30 Urine Nr. 32 inclusion Nr. 24 Nr. 25 Nr. 26 Nr. 27 Nr. 28Nr. 29 4703- Nr. 31 3808- number 3904-IGF1 4010-cck 3810-TNF R24303-Digoxin 4007-Endothelin 4403-Neopterin Myeloperoxidase 5203-sVSGFEGF 2 0.6 13.4 5.1 0.08 0.00 1.3 0.1 0.2 2.9 25 0.5 43.8 1.7 0.26 0.021.8 0.3 0.2 4 28 0.2 15.4 3.4 0.05 0.02 1.6 0.1 0.2 0 39 0.8 132.4 2.50.10 0.00 1.3 0.2 0 9 42 0.8 29.1 2.8 0.04 0.00 1.6 2.6 69 11 85 1.120.8 12.4 0.04 0.00 1.4 0.4 3.4 1 112 0.2 50.8 5.1 0.03 0.00 1.9 0.5 6.01 151 1.3 9.6 3.9 0.21 0.11 1.9 1.2 22.5 0 232 0.2 30.2 4.5 0.09 0.002.8 0.1 0.1 6 246 0.2 4.2 2.0 0.01 0.07 3.2 0.6 0.3 3 240 0.9 12.1 6.10.03 0.00 0.9 0.4 0.8 1 228 0.2 15.6 4.8 0.06 0.05 1.5 0.6 0.3 11 34 0.41.6 3.9 0.03 0.01 1.9 0.2 0.3 0 36 0.3 50.8 11.3 0.09 0.00 2.6 0.1 0.1 041 0.5 22.2 7.6 0.03 0.02 4.3 0.7 0.5 16 209 0.3 12.9 1.2 0.04 0.02 1.70.2 0.4 5 47 0.5 0.9 7.8 0.03 0.01 1.5 0.1 0.2 1 122 0.4 19.7 3.6 0.050.00 1.8 0.8 34 7 56 1.6 63.6 3.0 0.03 0.00 2.2 0.4 21.8 72 245 0.5923.5 7.9 0.10 0.00 2.3 0.4 0.7 10 242 1.5 82.4 5.9 0.26 0.00 1.7 0.85.5 12 176 0.7 18.9 16.9 0.09 0.22 0.8 9.7 0.6 0 69 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND1.5 ND 148 1.2 24.4 3.4 0.06 0.00 1.8 0.5 0.2 17

All values are measured in morning-urine. The obtained concentrationsare divided by the creatinine contration in that sample. Also in theserum sample taken at the same time a potential kidney failure has beenexcluded by measuring the creatinine concentration

TABLE 4 Significance at Blood derived Condition total # participating #phenotype Biomarkers 90%/95% biomarkers AUC Biomarkers P randomisationinvolved Serum/ Plasma 1st order 15/7.5 6 0.739 6 0.010 significance atTNF-R2, biomarkers 20/12.5 6 0.745 6 0.006 all conditions Cortisol,25/12.5 6 0.744 6 0.005 Thromboxane, Endothelin, Leptin, Vit. D 2ndorder 15/7.5 10 0.765 10 0.043 significance at 1st order plus:biomarkers 20/12.5 10 0.750 10 0.049 all conditions Calprotectin,25/12.5 10 0.775 9 0.027 cAMP, Zonulin, Substance P 3rd order 15/7.5 170.776 17 0.180 at 25%/12.5% 2nd order plus: biomarkers 20/12.5 17 0.75010 0.194 BDNF, Midkine, 25/12.5 17 0.775 9 0.043 Nitrotyrosine, LTB4,NPY, Telomerase, Aldosteron 4th order 7.5/7.5 21 0.793 21 0.030 at7.5%/7.5% 3rd order plus: biomarkers 15/7.5 21 0.776 17 0.678 only, seetekst EGF, Lipocalin, 20/12.5 21 0.750 10 0.300 HVEM, 25/12.5 21 0.775 90.079 Isoprostane, Urine 1st order 15/7.5 7 0.778 7 0.0006 allconditions cGMP, Cortisol, biomarkers 20/12.5 7 0.780 7 <0.00001 highlysignificant Calprotectin, 25/12.5 7 0.780 7 <0.00001 Thromboxane,Aldosteron, HVEM, Substance P 2^(nd) order 15/7.5 11 0.823 11 <0.0001all conditions 1st order plus: biomarkers 20/12.5 11 0.823 11 <0.0001highly significant Leptin, LTB4, 25/12.5 11 0.780 7 0.006 Isoprostane,Midkine 3rd order 15/7.5 15 0.815 15 0.007 all conditions 2nd orderplus: biomarkers 20/12.5 15 0.825 11 <0.0001 significant with cAMP,25/12.5 15 0.780 7 0.02 highly significant Endothelin, optimum TNF-R2,NPY 4th order 15/7.5 19 0.816 18 0.03 all conditions 3rd order plus:biomarkers 20/12.5 19 0.825 11 0.0028 Adiponectin, 25/12.5 19 0.780 70.0369 EGF, Lipocalin, Pregnenolon, Serum + Urine 1st order 15/7.5 11(5-S + 6- 0.845 11 <0.00001 all conditions TNF-R2-S, biomarkers U)highly significant Cortisol-S, 20/12.5 11 (5-S + 6- 0.856 11 <0.00001Thromboxane- U) S, Leptin-S, 25/12.5 11 (5-S + 6- 0.858 11 <0.00001Endothelin-S, U) cGMP-U, Cortisol-U, Aldosteron-U, Thromboxane- U,HVEM-U, Substance P-U 2nd order 15/7.5 16 (9-S + 7- 0.848 16 0.0009 allconditions 2nd order plus: biomarkers U) highly significant Vit-D-S,20/12.5 16 (9-S + 7- 0.860 16 0.0009 cAmp-S, U) Zonulin-S, 25/12.5 16(9-S + 7- 0.860 16 <0.0001 Substance-P-S, U) Calprotectin-U 3rd order15/7.5 21 (10- 0.874 21 <0.0001 all conditions 2nd order plus:biomarkers S + 11-U) highly significant Calprotectin-S, 20/12.5 21 (10-0.879 21 <0.0001 Leptin-U, LTB4- S + 11-U) U, Isoprostane- 25/12.5 21(10- 0.860 16 0.002 U, Midkine-U S + 11-U) 4th order 7.5/7.5 40 (21-0.855 40 0.045 significance, 3rd order plus: biomarkers S + 19-U) except15/7.5 BDNF-S, 15/7.5 40 (21- 0.873 35 0.110 Midkine-S, S + 19-U)Nitrotyrosine- 20/12.5 40 (21- 0.879 21 0.018 S, EGF-S, LTB4- S + 19-U)S, Lipocalin-S, 25/12.5 40 (21- 0.860 16 0.028 NPY-S, HVEM- S + 19-U) S,Telomerase- S, Isoprostane- S, Aldosteron- S, cAMP-U, Endothelin-U,Adiponectin-U, EGF-U, TNF-R2- U, Lipocalin-U, Pregnenolon-U, NPY-U

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PEDF

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Midkine

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Endothelian Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress

LOX-1

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Endothelin-1

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Tight Junction Hypothesis

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Gliadin Induces an Increase in Intestinal Permeability and ZonulinRelease by Binding to the Chemokine Receptor CXCR3. Karen M. Lammers,Ruliang Lu, Julie Brownley, Bao Lu, Craig Gerard, Karen Thomas PrasadRallabhandi, Terez Shea-Donohue,* Amir Tamiz, Sefik Alkan, SarahNetzel-Arnett, Toni Antalis, Stefanie N. Vogel, and Alessio Fasano.Gastroenterology. 2008 July; 135(1): 194-204.e3.

Zonulin

Human Zonulin, a Potential Modulator of Intestinal Tight Junctions

Wenle Wang1, Sergio Uzzau1, Simeon E. Goldblum2 and Alessio Fasano,

Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition andGastrointestinal Pathophysiology Section, Center for VaccineDevelopment, 2Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of VeteransAffairs Medical Center and 3Department of Physiology, University ofMaryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md. 21201, USA; Journal of CellScience 113, 4435-4440 (2000) 4435

Intestinal Zonulin: Open Sesame!

Dr A Fasano, Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition,University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 W Baltimore St HSFBuilding, Room 465, Baltimore, Md. 21201, USA. Gut 2001; 49:159-162doi:10.1136/gut.49.2.159

LIGHT Signals Directly to Intestinal Epithelia to Cause BarrierDysfunction via Cytoskeletal and Endocytic Mechanisms

Brad T. Schwarz, Fengjun Wang, Le Shen, Daniel R. Clayburgh, Liping Su,Yingmin Wang, Yang-Xin Fu, Jerrold R. Turner

Gastroenterology, Volume 132, Issue 7, June 2007, Pages 2383-2394

Immune-Inflamation

TNF-Alpha and IFN-Gamma

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Michael R. Irwin and Andrew H. Miller Depressive disorders and immunity:20 years of progress and discovery. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity Vol.21, Issue 4, 2007, 374-383.

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Gladkevich A, Kauffman H F, Korf J. Lymphocytes as a neural probe:potential for studying psychiatric disorders. Prog NeuropsychopharmacolBiol Psychiatry. 2004 28(3):559-76.

Song C, Halbreich U, Han C, Leonard B E, Luo H. Imbalance between pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and between Th1 and Th2 cytokines indepressed patients: the effect of electroacupuncture or fluoxetinetreatment. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2009. 42(5):182-8.

Berthold-Losleben M, Himmerich H The TNF-alpha System: FunctionalAspects in Depression, Narcolepsy and Psychopharmacology. CurrNeuropharmacol. 2008; 6(3):193-202.

Himmerich H, Fulda S, Linseisen J, Seiler H, Wolfram G, Himmerich S,Gedrich K, Kloiber S, Lucae S, Ising M, Uhr M, Holsboer F, Pollmächer T.Depression, comorbidities and the TNF-alpha system. Eur Psychiatry.2008; 23(6):421-9.

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Simon N M, McNamara K, Chow C W, Maser R S, Papakostas G I, Pollack M H,Nierenberg A A, Fava M, Wong K K. A detailed examination of cytokineabnormalities in Major Depressive Disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol.2008 March; 18(3):230-3.

Hernández M E, Mendieta D, Martínez-Fong D, Loría F, Moreno J, EstradaI, Bojalil R, Pavón L. Variations in circulating cytokine levels during52 week course of treatment with SSRI for major depressive disorder. EurNeuropsychopharmacol. 2008; 18(12):917-24.

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IL-Beta1

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Pro Inflammatory Hypothesis

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A (Change in) Energy State

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1. A method for the diagnosis of a mood disorder or predisposition for amood disorder in an individual, by: a. taking a body fluid sample ofsaid individual; b. measuring the concentration of one or more of thebiomarkers selected from the group consisting essentially of HVEM,midkine, pregnenolone, calprotectin, either measured in serum or inurine, cortisol, Substance P, vitamin D and cGMP, when measured inurine, and zonulin, cAMP when measured in serum, c. comparing saidconcentration with the concentration of said one or more biomarkers in acontrol healthy subject; d. diagnose for the mood disorder if theconcentration is deviant from the concentration in control healthysubjects.
 2. A method for the diagnosis of a mood disorder orpredisposition for a mood disorder in an individual, by: a. taking abody fluid sample of said individual; b. measuring the concentration ofa set of biomarkers as chosen from the group of at least two biomarkersas indicated in the FIGS. 1 and 2, optionally completed with one or morebiomarkers selected from the group of urine biomarkers consistingessentially of activin, cAMP, aldosteron, digoxin, lipocalin, neopterin,LTB4, TNF alpha receptor 2, HVEM, PGE2, thromboxane B2, LOX-1,nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane, midkine, IGF, endothelin-1, c-GMP, GABA,vitamin D, cortisol, pregnenolone, substance P, EGF, calprotectin,leptin, myeloperoxidase, neuropeptide Y, CCK, sVEGFR1, AVP andacliponectin, or from the group of serum biomarkers activin, cAMP,aldosteron, lipocalin, TNF alpha receptor 2, IL-6, HVEM, galectin-8,PGE2, thromboxane B2, LOX-1, nitrotyrosine, F2-isoprostane, BDNF, PEDF,midkine, endothelin-1, c-AMP, c-GMP, GABA, vitamin D, pregnenolone,substance P, EGF, zonulin, calprotectin, VILIP, leptin, AVP(vasopressine), neuropeptide Y, MMP-1, bFGF, digoxin, BCL-2,calreticulin, myeloperoxidase, LTB4, PLAF, sVEGFR1 and adiponectin, c.comparing said concentration with the concentration of said one or morebiomarkers in a control healthy subject; d. diagnose for the mooddisorder if the concentration is deviant from the concentration incontrol healthy subjects.
 3. Method according to claim 2, wherein theset of biomarkers consists of TNFα receptor 2, cortisol, thromboxane,leptin, and endothelin when measured in serum and cGMP, cortisol,aldosteron, thromboxane, HVEM, and substance P when measured in urine.4. Method according to claim 3, wherein the set of biomarkers furthercomprises one or more markers selected from the group consisting ofVit-D, cAMP, zonulin and substance-P when measured in serum andcalprotectin when measured in urine.
 5. Method according to claim 4,wherein the set of biomarkers further comprises one or more biomarkersselected from the group consisting of calprotectin when measured inserum and leptin, LTB4, isoprostane and midkine when measured in urine.6. Method according to claim 2, wherein the biomarkers are measured inurine and wherein the set of biomarkers consists of cGMP, cortisol,calprotectin, thromboxane, aldosteron , HVEM and substance P, preferablyfurther comprising one or more biomarkers selected from the groupconsisting of leptin, LTB4, isoprostane and midkine, more preferablyfurther comprising one or more biomarkers selected from the groupconsisting of cAMP, endothelin, TNFα-R2 and neuropeptide Y, morepreferably further comprising one or more biomarkers selected from thegroup consisting of acliponectin, EGF, lipocalin and pregnenolon. 7.Method according to claim 2, wherein the biomarkers are measured inserum or plasma and wherein the set of biomarkers consists ofTNFα-receptor 2, cortisol, thromboxane, endothelin, leptin, vtamin D,preferably further comprising one or more biomarkers selected from thegroup consisting of calprotectin, cAMP, zonulin and substance P, morepreferably further comprising one or more biomarkers selected from thegroup consisting of BDNF, midkine, nitrotyrosine, LTB4, neuropeptide Y,telomerase and aldosterone, more preferably further comprising one ormore biomarkers selected from the group consisting of EGF, lipocalin,HVEM and isoprostane.
 8. Method according to any of claims 2-6, whereinthe content of biomarker in the urine is given as biomarker/creatinineratio.
 9. Method according to any of claims 2-6, wherein the urine isfirst morning urine.
 10. Method according to any of claims 1 to 9,wherein the mood disorder is chosen from depression, schizophrenia,psychosis and anxiety.
 11. Method according to claim 10, wherein themood disorder is depression, chosen from dysthymia, endogenousdepression, reactive depression, minor depression, major depression,psychotic depression, neurotic depression, postnatal depression, burnout, overstrain, unipolar depression and bipolar depression, mostpreferably major depression.
 12. Method according to any of the previousclaims, wherein the subject is suspected of having depression preferablymajor depression
 13. Method according to any of the previous claims,wherein the detection of the biomarker is performed by one or moremethods selected from SELDI (-TOF), MALDI (-TOF), a 1 D gel-basedanalysis, a 2 D gel-based analysis, Mass spec (MS), reverse phase (RP)LC, size permeation (gel filtration), ion exchange, affinity, HPLC, UPLCor other LC of LC-MS-based technique.
 14. Method according to any of theprevious claims 1-12, wherein the detection of the biomarker isperformed by an immunological method, preferably ELISA.
 15. Methodaccording to any of the previous claims 1-12 wherein the detection ofthe biomarker is performed by mRNA/DNA based methods like (RT)-PCR,hybridization and sequencing techniques.
 16. Method according to any ofthe previous claims 1-12, wherein the detection of the biomarker isperformed by determining the methylation status of the gene encodingsaid biomarker.
 17. Method according to any of the previous claims 1-16,wherein the detection of the biomarker is performed using a biosensor ora microanalitical, microengineered, microseparation orimmunochromatography system
 18. Method to determine the influence ofantidepressant therapy in a subject comprising: a. performing a methodaccording to any of claims 1-17 b. treating the subject withantidepressant(s) therapy or other bioactive compound(s) for mooddisorders; c. repeating step a) with regular intervals during saidtreatment; and d. registering any difference in the concentration of themeasured biomarker(s) in the body fluid.
 19. Method to determine theinfluence of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or transcranial magneticstimulation (TMS) treatment for mood disorder in a subject comprising:a. performing a method according to any of claims 1-17 b. treating thesubject with ECT or TMS therapy; c. repeating step a) with regularintervals during said treatment; and d. registering any difference inthe concentration of the measured biomarker(s) in the body fluid. 20.Method to determine the influence of psychotherapy in a subjectcomprising: a. performing a method according to any of claims 1-17 b.treating the subject psychotherapy c. repeating step a) with regularintervals during said treatment; and d. registering any difference inthe concentration of the measured biomarker(s) in the body fluid. 21.Method to determine a predisposition to mood disorder in a subjectcomprising: a. performing a method according to any of claims 1-17 b.repeating step a) with regular intervals during said treatment; and c.registering any difference in the concentration of the measuredbiomarker(s) in the body fluid.
 22. Method to monitor the progress of amood disorder in a subject comprising performing a method according toany of claims 1-17.
 23. Use of one or more biomarkers selected from thegroup consisting essentially of HVEM, midkine, pregnenolone, andcalprotectin, either measured in serum or in urine, cortisol, substanceP, and cGMP, when measured in urine, and zonulin and cAMP, when measuredin serum for the diagnosis of a mood disorder or for the detection of apredisposition for a mood disorder.
 24. Use of a panel of biomarkers,wherein said panel consists of TNFα receptor 2, cortisol, thromboxane,leptin, and endothelin when measured in serum and cGMP, cortisol,aldosteron, thromboxane, HVEM, and substance P when measured in urine,preferably wherein the set of biomarkers further comprises one or moremarkers selected from the group consisting of Vit-D, cAMP, zonulin andsubstance-P when measured in serum and calprotectin when measured inurine, more preferably wherein the panel of biomarkers further comprisesone or more biomarkers selected from the group consisting ofcalprotectin when measured in serum and leptin, LTB4, isoprostane andmidkine when measured in urine for the diagnosis of a mood disorder orfor the detection of a predisposition for a mood disorder.
 25. Use of apanel of biomarkers for measurement in urine, wherein said panelconsists consists of cGMP, cortisol, calprotectin, thromboxane,aldosteron, HVEM and substance P, preferably further comprising one ormore biomarkers selected from the group consisting of leptin, LTB4,isoprostane and midkine, more preferably further comprising one or morebiomarkers selected from the group consisting of cAMP, endothelin,TNFα-R2 and neuropeptide Y, more preferably further comprising one ormore biomarkers selected from the group consisting of atliponectin, EGF,lipocalin and pregnenolon for the diagnosis of a mood disorder or forthe detection of a predisposition for a mood disorder from urine. 26.Use of a panel of biomarkers for measurement in serum or plasma, whereinthe set of biomarkers consists of TNFα-receptor 2, cortisol,thromboxane, endothelin, leptin, vtamin D, preferably further comprisingone or more biomarkers selected from the group consisting ofcalprotectin, cAMP, zonulin and substance P, more preferably furthercomprising one or more biomarkers selected from the group consisting ofBDNF, midkine, nitrotyrosine, LTB4, neuropeptide Y, telomerase andaldosterone, more preferably further comprising one or more biomarkersselected from the group consisting of EGF, lipocalin, HVEM andisoprostane, for the diagnosis of a mood disorder or for the detectionof a predisposition for a mood disorder from blood, plasma or serum. 27.Method for monitoring or diagnosing a mood disorder, preferably majordepressive disorder, comprising measuring a biomarker in the urine of aperson suspected of having a mood disorder, wherein said biomarker isselected from the group of biomarkers consisting of comprising activin,cAMP, aldosteron, digoxin, lipocalin, neopterin, LTB4, TNF alphareceptor 2, HVEM, PGE2, thromboxane B2, LOX-1, nitrotyrosine,F2-isoprostane, midkine, IGF, endothelin-1, c-GMP, GABA, vitamin D,cortisol, pregnenolone, substance P, EGF, calprotectin, leptin,myeloperoxidase, neuropeptide Y, CCK, sVEGFR1, AVP and acliponectin. 28.A diagnostic kit for monitoring or diagnosing major depressive disorder,comprising a biosensor capable of detecting and/or quantifying theanalyte biomarkers as defined in any of the claims 1-17.
 29. Adiagnostic kit according to claim 28, wherein said kit comprises a setof biosensors capable of detecting and or quantifying the set ofbiomarkers as defined in any of claims 2-7.